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We report observations of direct evidence of energetic protons being accelerated above ~400 keV within the reconnection exhaust of a heliospheric current sheet (HCS) crossing by NASA's Parker Solar Probe (PSP) at a distance of ~16.25 solar radii (Rs) from the Sun. Inside the extended exhaust, both the reconnection-generated plasma jets and the accelerated protons propagated toward the Sun, unambiguously establishing their origin from HCS reconnection sites located beyond PSP. Within the core of the exhaust, PSP detected stably trapped energetic protons up to ~400 keV, which is approximately 1000 times greater than the available magnetic energy per particle. The differential energy spectrum of the accelerated protons behaved as a pure power-law with spectral index of about -5. Supporting simulations using the kglobal model suggest that the trapping and acceleration of protons up to ~400 keV in the reconnection exhaust is likely facilitated by merging magnetic islands with a guide field between ~0.2-0.3 of the reconnecting magnetic field, consistent with the observations. These new results, enabled by PSP's proximity to the Sun, demonstrate that magnetic reconnection in the HCS is a significant new source of energetic particles in the near-Sun solar wind. The discovery of in-situ particle acceleration via magnetic reconnection at the HCS provides valuable insights into this fundamental process which frequently converts the large magnetic field energy density in the near-Sun plasma environment and may be responsible for heating the sun's atmosphere, accelerating the solar wind, and energizing charged particles to extremely high energies in solar flares.

In this study, we present the first-ever direct measurements of synchrotron-emitting heliospheric traveling shocks, intercepted by the Parker Solar Probe (PSP) during its close encounters. Given that much of our understanding of powerful astrophysical shocks is derived from synchrotron radiation, these observations by PSP provide an unprecedented opportunity to explore how shocks accelerate relativistic electrons and the conditions under which they emit radiation. The probe's unparalleled capabilities to measure both electromagnetic fields and energetic particles with high precision in the near-Sun environment has allowed us to directly correlate the distribution of relativistic electrons with the resulting photon emissions. Our findings reveal that strong quasi-parallel shocks emit radiation at significantly higher intensities than quasi-perpendicular shocks due to the efficient acceleration of ultra-relativistic electrons. These experimental results are consistent with theory and recent observations of supernova remnant shocks and advance our understanding of shock physics across diverse space environments.

Since Parker Solar Probe's (Parker's) first perihelion pass at the Sun, large amplitude Alfvén waves grouped in patches have been observed near the Sun throughout the mission. Several formation processes for these magnetic switchback patches have been suggested with no definitive consensus. To provide insight to their formation, we examine the heavy ion properties of several adjacent magnetic switchback patches around Parker's 11th perihelion pass capitalizing on a spacecraft lineup with Solar Orbiter where each samples the same solar wind streams over a large range of longitudes. Heavy ion properties (Fe/O, C$^{6+}$/C$^{5+}$, O$^{7+}$/O$^{6+}$) related to the wind's coronal origin, measured with Solar Orbiter can be linked to switchback patch structures identified near the Sun with Parker. We find that switchback patches do not contain distinctive ion and elemental compositional signatures different than the surrounding non-switchback solar wind. Both the patches and ambient wind exhibit a range of fast and slow wind qualities, indicating coronal sources with open and closed field lines in close proximity. These observations and modeling indicate switchback patches form in coronal hole boundary wind and with a range of source region magnetic and thermal properties. Furthermore, the heavy ion signatures suggest interchange reconnection and/or shear driven processes may play a role in their creation.

After leaving the Sun's corona, the solar wind continues to accelerate and cools, but more slowly than expected for a freely expanding adiabatic gas. We use in situ measurements from the Parker Solar Probe and Solar Orbiter spacecrafts to investigate a stream of solar wind as it traverses the inner heliosphere. The observations show heating and acceleration of the the plasma between the outer edge of the corona and near the orbit of Venus, in connection to the presence of large amplitude Alfvén waves. Alfvén waves are perturbations in the interplanetary magnetic field that transport energy. Our calculations show the damping and mechanical work performed by the Alfvén waves is sufficient to power the heating and acceleration of the fast solar wind in the inner heliosphere.

In this paper we model the high-energy tail of observed solar energetic proton energy distributions with a kappa distribution function. We employ a technique for deriving the thermodynamic parameters of solar energetic proton populations measured by the Parker Solar Probe (PSP) Integrated Science Investigation of the Sun (IS$\odot$IS) EPI-Hi high energy telescope (HET), over energies from 10 - 60 MeV. With this technique we explore, for the first time, the characteristic thermodynamic properties of the solar energetic protons associated with an interplanetary coronal mass ejection (ICME) and its driven shock. We find that (1) the spectral index, or equivalently, the thermodynamic parameter kappa of solar energetic protons ($\kappa_{\rm EP}$) gradually increases starting from the pre-ICME region (upstream of the CME-driven shock), reaching a maximum in the CME ejecta ($\kappa_{\rm EP} \approx 3.5$), followed by a gradual decrease throughout the trailing portion of the CME; (2) solar energetic proton temperature and density ($T_{\rm EP}$ and $n_{\rm EP}$) appear anti-correlated, a behavior consistent to sub-isothermal polytropic processes; and (3) values of $T_{\rm EP}$ and $\kappa_{\rm EP}$ appear are positively correlated, indicating an increasing entropy with time. Therefore, these proton populations are characterized by a complex and evolving thermodynamic behavior, consisting of multiple sub-isothermal polytropic processes, and a large-scale trend of increasing temperature, kappa, and entropy. This study and its companion study by Livadiotis et al. (2024) open a new set of procedures for investigating the thermodynamic behavior of energetic particles and their shared thermal properties.

Using a classification scheme for solar wind type based on the heliocentric distance of the observation, we look at near perihelion observations from Parker Solar Probe Encounters Four to Fourteen to study the sources of the slow Alfv$\'e$nic solar wind (SASW). Through Potential Field Source Surface (PFSS) modeling and ballistic mapping, we connect streams to their solar source and find that a primary population of SASW comes from low magnetic field strength regions (low-$B_0$), likely small coronal holes (CHs) and their over-expanded boundaries, while a second population of high field strength (high-$B_0$) seems to emerge from non-CH structures potentially through interchange reconnection with nearby open field lines. This low-$B_0$ SASW shows larger expansion than the fast solar wind (FSW) but similar mass flux, potentially indicating additional heating below the critical point, and emergence from a cooler structure, which could lead to slower wind emerging from CH-like structures. We show that this low-$B_0$ SASW shows stronger preferential acceleration of alpha particles (similar to the FSW) than the high-$B_0$ SASW, and that this is a velocity dependent phenomenon as found in previous studies. To have additional confidence in our mapping results, we quantify the error on both the PFSS model and ballistic mapping and discuss how additional multi-point observations of plasma parameters and composition would allow us to better constrain our models and connect the solar wind to its source.

The Lunar Surface Electromagnetics Experiment at Night (LuSEE-Night) is a project designed to investigate the feasibility of observing the Cosmic Dark Ages using an instrument on the lunar far-side. LuSEE-Night will measure the redshifted 21 cm transition of neutral hydrogen over a frequency range of 0.1-50 MHz, covering the redshift range 27 < z < 1100. The LuSEE-Night instrument is a radio frequency spectrometer, consisting of four horizontal monopole antennas, arranged to give wide zenith-pointing beams with two orthogonal linear polarizations. This combination of polarization, spectral, and angular sensitivity will be necessary to separate the cosmological signal from significantly stronger foreground emissions. LuSEE-Night will observe in drift scan during lunar night while the moon shields it from radio frequency interference from both the Earth and sun, and will transmit science and telemetry data back to Earth via an orbital relay during the lunar day. LuSEE-Night will have to operate in a challenging environment: its electronics must operate under hard radiation, the instrument must be thermally isolated during the cold 100~K lunar night, and have a thermal rejection path to survive the 390~K daytime temperature, and its photovoltaic and battery systems must provide sufficient power to operate during two weeks of lunar night. Furthermore, the instrument spectrometer must be powered throughout the lunar night using only a 7~kWh battery, due to mass limitations. Here we describe the power generation, storage, and delivery subsystems of the LuSEE-Night instrument, and the simulations which were performed to design the power subsystems and ensure instrument survival and operation throughout the long lunar night. We also describe the Concept of Operations (ConOps) developed for the LuSEE-Night mission, which derives from the power management simulations.

Circularly polarized, nearly parallel propagating waves are prevalent in the solar wind at ion-kinetic scales. At these scales, the spectrum of turbulent fluctuations in the solar wind steepens, often called the transition-range, before flattening at sub-ion scales. Circularly polarized waves have been proposed as a mechanism to couple electromagnetic fluctuations to ion gyromotion, enabling ion-scale dissipation that results in observed ion-scale steepening. Here, we study Parker Solar Probe observations of an extended stream of fast solar wind ranging from 15-55 solar radii. We demonstrate that, throughout the stream, transition-range steepening at ion-scales is associated with the presence of significant left handed ion-kinetic scale waves, which are thought to be ion-cyclotron waves. We implement quasilinear theory to compute the rate at which ions are heated via cyclotron resonance with the observed circularly polarized waves given the empirically measured proton velocity distribution functions. We apply the Von Karman decay law to estimate the turbulent decay of the large-scale fluctuations, which is equal to the turbulent energy cascade rate. We find that the ion-cyclotron heating rates are correlated with, and amount to a significant fraction of, the turbulent energy cascade rate, implying that cyclotron heating is an important dissipation mechanism in the solar wind.

Alfvén waves, considered one of the primary candidates for heating and accelerating the fast solar wind, are ubiquitous in spacecraft observations, yet their origin remains elusive. In this study, we analyze data from the first 19 encounters of the Parker Solar Probe (PSP) and report dominance of 2-minute oscillations near the Alfvén surface. The frequency-rectified trace magnetic power spectral density (PSD) of these oscillations indicates that the fluctuation energy is concentrated around 2 minutes for the ``youngest'' solar wind. Further analysis using wavelet spectrograms reveals that these oscillations primarily consist of outward-propagating, spherically polarized Alfvén wave bursts. Through Doppler analysis, we show that the wave frequency observed in the spacecraft frame can be mapped directly to the launch frequency at the base of the corona, where previous studies have identified a distinct peak around 2 minutes ($\sim 8$ mHz) in the spectrum of swaying motions of coronal structures observed by SDO AIA. These findings strongly suggest that the Alfvén waves originate from the solar atmosphere. Furthermore, statistical analysis of the PSD deformation beyond the Alfvén surface supports the idea of dynamic formation of the otherwise absent $1/f$ range in the solar wind turbulence spectrum.

We present an event observed by Parker Solar Probe at $\sim$0.2 au on March 2, 2022 in which imaging and \emphin situ measurements coincide. During this event, PSP passed through structures on the flank of a streamer blowout CME including an isolated flux tube in front of the CME, a turbulent sheath, and the CME itself. Imaging observations and \emphin situ helicity and principal variance signatures consistently show the presence of flux ropes internal to the CME. In both the sheath, and the CME interval, the distributions are more isotropic, the spectra are softer, and the abundance ratios of Fe/O and He/H are lower than those in the isolated flux tube, and yet elevated relative to typical plasma and SEP abundances. These signatures in the sheath and the CME indicate that both flare populations and those from the plasma are accelerated to form the observed energetic particle enhancements. In contrast, the isolated flux tube shows large streaming, hard spectra and large Fe/O and He/H ratios, indicating flare sources. Energetic particle fluxes are most enhanced within the CME interval from suprathermal through energetic particle energies ($\sim$ keV to $>10$ MeV), indicating particle acceleration, and confinement local to the closed magnetic structure. The flux-rope morphology of the CME helps to enable local modulation and trapping of energetic particles, particularly along helicity channels and other plasma boundaries. Thus, the CME acts to build-up energetic particle populations, allowing them to be fed into subsequent higher energy particle acceleration throughout the inner heliosphere where a compression or shock forms on the CME front.

During Parker Solar Probe (Parker) Encounter 15 (E15), we observe an 18-hour period of near subsonic ($\mathrm{M_S \sim}$ 1) and sub-Alfvénic (SA), $\mathrm{M_A}$ <<< 1, slow speed solar wind from 22 to 15.6 R$_\odot$. As the most extreme SA interval measured to date and skirting the solar wind sonic point, it is the deepest Parker has probed into the formation and acceleration region of the solar wind in the corona. The stream is also measured by Wind and MMS near 1AU at times consistent with ballistic propagation of this slow stream. We investigate the stream source, properties and potential coronal heating consequences via combining these observations with coronal modeling and turbulence analysis. Through source mapping, in situ evidence and multi-point arrival time considerations of a candidate CME, we determine the stream is a steady (non-transient), long-lived and approximately Parker spiral aligned and arises from overexpanded field lines mapping back to an active region. Turbulence analysis of the Elsässer variables shows the inertial range scaling of the $\mathrm{\mathbf{z}^{+}}$ mode ($\mathrm{f \sim ^{-3/2}}$) to be dominated by the slab component. We discuss the spectral flattening and difficulties associated with measuring the $\mathrm{\mathbf{z}^{-}}$ spectra, cautioning against making definitive conclusions from the $\mathrm{\mathbf{z}^{-}}$ mode. Despite being more extreme than prior sub-Alfvénic intervals, its turbulent nature does not appear to be qualitatively different from previously observed streams. We conclude that this extreme low dynamic pressure solar wind interval (which has the potential for extreme space weather conditions) is a large, steady structure spanning at least to 1AU.

As both Parker Solar Probe (PSP) and Solar Orbiter (SolO) reach heliocentric distances closer to the Sun, they present an exciting opportunity to study the structure of CMEs in the inner heliosphere. We present an analysis of the global flux rope structure of the 2022 September 5 CME event that impacted PSP at a heliocentric distance of only 0.07 au and SolO at 0.69 au. We compare in situ measurements at PSP and SolO to determine global and local expansion measures, finding a good agreement between magnetic field relationships with heliocentric distance, but significant differences with respect to flux rope size. We use PSP/WISPR images as input to the ELEvoHI model, providing a direct link between remote and in situ observations; we find a large discrepancy between the resulting modeled arrival times, suggesting that the underlying model assumptions may not be suitable when using data obtained close to the Sun, where the drag regime is markedly different in comparison to larger heliocentric distances. Finally, we fit the SolO/MAG and PSP/FIELDS data independently with the 3DCORE model and find that many parameters are consistent between spacecraft, however, challenges are apparent when reconstructing a global 3D structure that aligns with arrival times at PSP and Solar Orbiter, likely due to the large radial and longitudinal separations between spacecraft. From our model results, it is clear the solar wind background speed and drag regime strongly affect the modeled expansion and propagation of CMEs and need to be taken into consideration.

Collisionless shock waves, ubiquitous in the universe, are crucial for particle acceleration in various astrophysical systems. Currently, the heliosphere is the only natural environment available for their in situ study. In this work, we showcase the collective acceleration of electrons and ions by one of the fastest in situ shocks ever recorded, observed by the pioneering Parker Solar Probe at only 34.5 million kilometers from the Sun. Our analysis of this unprecedented, near-parallel shock shows electron acceleration up to 6 MeV amidst intense multi-scale electromagnetic wave emissions. We also present evidence of a variable shock structure capable of injecting and accelerating ions from the solar wind to high energies through a self-consistent process. The exceptional capability of the probe's instruments to measure electromagnetic fields in a shock traveling at 1% the speed of light has enabled us, for the first time, to confirm that the structure of a strong heliospheric shock aligns with theoretical models of strong shocks observed in astrophysical environments. This alignment offers viable avenues for understanding astrophysical shock processes and the acceleration of charged particles.

Parker Solar Probe (PSP) observed sub-Alfvenic solar wind intervals during encounters 8 - 14, and low-frequency magnetohydrodynamic turbulence in these regions may differ from that in super-Alfvenic wind. We apply a new mode-decomposition analysis (Zank et al 2023) to the sub-Alfvénic flow observed by PSP on 2021 April 28, identifying and characterizing entropy, magnetic islands, forward and backward Alfvén waves, including weakly/non-propagating Alfvén vortices, forward and backward fast and slow magnetosonic modes. Density fluctuations are primarily and almost equally entropy and backward propagating slow magnetosonic modes. The mode-decomposition provides phase information (frequency and wavenumber k) for each mode. Entropy-density fluctuations have a wavenumber anisotropy k_|| >> k_perp whereas slow mode density fluctuations have k_perp > k_||. Magnetic field fluctuations are primarily magnetic island modes (delta B^i) with an O(1) smaller contribution from uni-directionally propagating Alfven waves (delta B^A+) giving a variance anisotropy of <\delta B^i^2> / <delta B^A^2> = 4.1. Incompressible magnetic fluctuations dominate compressible contributions from fast and slow magnetosonic modes. The magnetic island spectrum is Kolmogorov-like k_perp^-1.6 in perpendicular wavenumber and the uni-directional Alfven wave spectra are k_||^-1.6 and k_perp^-1.5. Fast magnetosonic modes propagate at essentially the Alfvén speed with anti-correlated transverse velocity and magnetic field fluctuations and are almost exclusively magnetic due to beta_p<<1. Transverse velocity fluctuations are the dominant velocity component in fast magnetosonic modes and longitudinal fluctuations dominate in slow modes. Mode-decomposition is an effective tool in identifying the basic building blocks of MHD turbulence and provides detailed phase information about each of the modes.

Solar and interplanetary radio bursts can reflect the existence and motion of energetic electrons and are therefore a kind of vital phenomenon in solar activities. The present study reported a solar radio burst (SRB) event observed by Parker Solar Probe (PSP) in its 8th orbital encounter phase, and it lasted about 20 hours in a frequency range of 0.5-15 MHz, called the type IV-like SRB. This type IV-like SRB consists of a series of numerous spikes with the center-frequency drifting slowly from ~5 MHz to ~1 MHz, and each individual spike appears a much faster frequency drifting and has a narrow frequency range of a few MHz and short duration of a few minutes. Based on the empirical models of the solar atmosphere adopted commonly, combining the in-situ measurement by PSP, we propose that these small-scale spikes were generated by a group of solitary kinetic Alfvén waves (SKAWs) in a magnetic loop accompanying coronal mass ejection (CME) and moving outwards, in which the frequency drifting of individual spike is caused by the SKAW's propagation and the center-frequency drifting may be attributed to the motion of the magnetic loop.

$\textit{AIMS.}$ To investigate processes associated with generation of type-III radiation. $\textit{METHODS.}$ Measure the amplitudes and phase velocities of Parker Solar Probe observed electric fields, magnetic fields, and plasma density fluctuations. $\textit{RESULTS.}$ (1) There are slow electrostatic waves near the Langmuir frequency and at as many as six harmonics, the number of which increases with the amplitude of the Langmuir wave. Their electrostatic nature is shown by measurement of the plasma density fluctuations. From these density fluctuations and the electric field magnitude, the k-value of the Langmuir wave is estimated to be 0.14 and $k \lambda_d$ = 0.4. Even with a large uncertainty in this quantity (more than a factor of two) the phase velocity of the Langmuir wave was <10,000 km/sec. (2) There is an electromagnetic wave near the Langmuir frequency having a phase velocity <50,000 km/sec. (3) Whether there are electromagnetic waves at the harmonics of the Langmuir frequency cannot be determined because, if they existed, their magnetic field components would be below the noise level of the measurement. (4) The rapid (less than one msec) amplitude variations typical of the Langmuir wave and its harmonics are artifacts resulting from addition of two waves, one of which has small frequency variations that arise from traveling through density irregularities. None of these results are expected in or consistent with the conventional model of the three-wave interaction of two counter-streaming Langmuir waves that coalesce to produce the type-III wave. They are consistent with a new model in which electrostatic antenna waves are produced at the harmonics by radiation of the Langmuir wave, after which at least the first harmonic wave evolved through density irregularities such that its wave number decreased and it became the type-III radiation.

The search-coil magnetometer (SCM) aboard Parker Solar Probe (PSP) measures the 3 Hz to 1 MHz magnetic field fluctuations. During Encounter 1, the SCM operated as expected; however, in March 2019, technical issues limited subsequent encounters to two components for frequencies below 1 kHz. Detrimentally, most whistler waves are observed in the affected frequency band where established techniques cannot extract the wave polarization properties under these conditions. Fortunately, the Electric Field Instrument aboard PSP measures two electric field components and covers the affected bandwidth. We propose a technique using the available electromagnetic fields to reconstruct the missing components by neglecting the electric field parallel to the background magnetic field. This technique is applicable with the assumptions of (a) low-frequency whistlers in the plasma frame relative to the electron cyclotron frequency; (b) a small propagation angle with respect to the background magnetic field; and (c) a large wave phase speed relative to the cross-field solar wind velocity. Critically, the method cannot be applied if the background magnetic field is aligned with the affected SCM coil. We have validated our method using burst mode measurements made before March 2019. The reconstruction conditions are satisfied for 80% of the burst mode whistlers detected during Encounter 1. We apply the method to determine the polarization of a whistler event observed after March 2019 during Encounter 2. Our novel method is an encouraging step toward analyzing whistler properties in affected encounters and improving our understanding of wave-particle interactions in the young solar wind.

The evolution of the solar wind electron distribution function with heliocentric distance exhibits different features that are still unexplained, in particular, the increase of the Strahl pitch angle width. Wave-particle interactions between electrons and whistler waves are often proposed to explain these phenomena. We aim at quantifying the effect of whistler waves on suprathermal electrons as a function of heliocentric distance. We first perform a statistical analysis of whistler waves (occurrence and properties) observed by Solar Orbiter and Parker Solar Probe between 0.2 and 1 AU. The wave characteristics are then used to compute the diffusion coefficients in the framework of quasi-linear theory. These coefficients are integrated in order to deduce the overall effect of whistler waves on electrons along their propagation. 110,000 whistler wave packets are detected and characterized in the plasma frame. Most waves are aligned with the magnetic field and only about 0.5% of them have a propagation angle greater than 45\deg. Beyond 0.3 AU, almost exclusively anti-sunward waves (some of them are found sunward but are within switchbacks with a change of sign of the radial component of the background magnetic) are observed. These waves are therefore Strahl-aligned and not counter-streaming. At 0.2 AU we find both Strahl-aligned and counter-streaming waves. Beyond 0.3 AU, the integrated diffusion coefficients show that the observed waves can explain the measured Strahl pitch angle evolution and are effective in isotropizing the halo. Strahl diffusion is mainly due to whistler waves with an angle of propagation between 15\deg and 45\deg. Near 0.2 AU, counter-streaming whistler waves can diffuse the Strahl electrons more efficiently than the Strahl-aligned waves by two orders of magnitude.

We report on the first direct in situ measurements of a fast coronal mass ejection (CME) and shock in the corona, which occurred on 2022 September 5. In situ measurements from the Parker Solar Probe (PSP) spacecraft near perihelion suggest two shocks with the second one decayed, which is consistent with more than one eruptions in coronagraph images. Despite a flank crossing, the measurements indicate unique features of the young ejecta: a plasma much hotter than the ambient medium suggestive of a hot solar source, and a large plasma $\beta$ implying a highly non-force-free state and the importance of thermal pressure gradient for CME acceleration and expansion. Reconstruction of the global coronal magnetic fields shows a long-duration change in the heliospheric current sheet (HCS), and the observed field polarity reversals agree with a more warped HCS configuration. Reconnection signatures are observed inside an HCS crossing as deep as the sonic critical point. As the reconnection occurs in the sub-Alfvénic wind, the reconnected flux sunward of the reconnection site can close back to the Sun, which helps balance magnetic flux in the heliosphere. The nature of the sub-Alfvénic wind after the HCS crossing as a low Mach-number boundary layer (LMBL) leads to in situ measurements of the near subsonic plasma at a surprisingly large distance. Specifically, an LMBL may provide favorable conditions for the crossings of the sonic critical point in addition to the Alfvén surface.

The nonlinear evolution of Alfvén waves in the solar corona leads to the generation of Alfvénic turbulence. This description of the Alfvén waves involves parametric instabilities where the parent wave decays into slow mode waves giving rise to density fluctuations. These density fluctuations, in turn, play a crucial role in the modulation of the dynamic spectrum of type III radio bursts, which are observed at the fundamental of local plasma frequency and are sensitive to the local density. During observations of such radio bursts, fine structures are detected across different temporal ranges. In this study, we examine density fluctuations generated through the parametric decay instability (PDI) of Alfvén waves as a mechanism to generate striations in the dynamic spectrum of type III radio bursts using magnetohydrodynamic simulations of the solar corona. An Alfvén wave is injected into the quiet solar wind by perturbing the transverse magnetic field and velocity components which subsequently undergo the PDI instability. The type III burst is modelled as a fast-moving radiation source that samples the background solar wind as it propagates to emit radio waves. We find the simulated dynamic spectrum to contain striations directly affected by the multi-scale density fluctuations in the wind.

The Parker Solar Probe (PSP) and Solar Orbiter (SolO) missions opened a new observational window in the inner heliosphere, which is finally accessible to direct measurements. On September 05, 2022, a coronal mass ejection (CME)-driven interplanetary (IP) shock has been observed as close as 0.07 au by PSP. The CME then reached SolO, which was well radially-aligned at 0.7 au, thus providing us with the opportunity to study the shock properties at so different heliocentric distances. We characterize the shock, investigate its typical parameters and compare its small-scale features at both locations. Using the PSP observations, we investigate how magnetic switchbacks and ion cyclotron waves are processed upon shock crossing. We find that switchbacks preserve their V--B correlation while compressed upon the shock passage, and that the signature of ion cyclotron waves disappears downstream of the shock. By contrast, the SolO observations reveal a very structured shock transition, with a population of shock-accelerated protons of up to about 2 MeV, showing irregularities in the shock downstream, which we correlate with solar wind structures propagating across the shock. At SolO, we also report the presence of low-energy ($\sim$ 100 eV) electrons scattering due to upstream shocklets. This study elucidates how the local features of IP shocks and their environments can be very different as they propagate through the heliosphere.

The Parker Solar Probe (PSP) provides us the unprecedentedly close approach observation to the Sun, and hence the possibility of directly understanding the "elementary process" which occurs in the kinetic scale of particles collective interactioin in solar coronal plasmas. We reported a kind of weak solar radio bursts (SRBs), which are detected by PSP when it passed a low-density magnetic channel during its second encounter phase. These weak SRBs have low starting frequecny $\sim 20$ MHz and narrow frequency range from a few tens MHz to a few hundres kHz. Their dynamic spectra display a strongly evolving feature of the intermediate relative drift rate decreasing rapidly from above 0.01/s to below 0.01/s. Analyses based on common empirical models of solar coronal plasmas indicate that these weak SRBs originate from the heliocentric distance $\sim 1.1-6.1~R_S$ (the solar radius), a typical solar wind acceleration region with a low-$\beta$ plasma, and indicate that their soruces have a typic motion velociy $\sim v_A$ (Alfvén velocity) obviously lower than that of fast electrons required by effectively exciting SRBs. We propose that solitary kinetic Alfvén waves with kinetic scales can be responsible for the generation of these small-scalevweak SRBs, called solitary wave radiation (SWR).

Ion scale wave events or "wave storms" in the solar wind are characterised by enhancements in magnetic field fluctuations as well as coherent magnetic field polarisation signatures at or around the local ion cyclotron frequencies. In this paper we study in detail one such wave event from Parker Solar Probe's (PSP) fourth encounter, consisting of an initial period of left-handed (LH) polarisation abruptly transitioning to a strong period of right-handed (RH) polarisation, accompanied by clear core-beam structure in both the alpha and proton velocity distribution functions. A linear stability analysis shows that the LH polarised waves are anti-Sunward propagating Alfvén/ion cyclotron (A/IC) waves primarily driven by a proton cyclotron instability in the proton core population, and the RH polarised waves are anti-Sunward propagating fast magnetosonic/whistler (FM/W) waves driven by a firehose-like instability in the secondary alpha beam population. The abrupt transition from LH to RH is caused by a drop in the proton core temperature anisotropy. We find very good agreement between the frequencies and polarisations of the unstable wave modes as predicted by linear theory and those observed in the magnetic field spectra. Given the ubiquity of ion scale wave signatures observed by PSP, this work gives insight into which exact instabilities may be active and mediating energy transfer in wave-particle interactions in the inner heliosphere, as well as highlighting the role a secondary alpha population may play as a rarely considered source of free energy available for producing wave activity.

The exploration of the inner heliosphere by Parker Solar Probe has revealed a highly structured solar wind with ubiquitous deflections from the Parker spiral, known as switchbacks. Interchange reconnection (IR) may play an important role in generating these switchbacks by forming unstable particle distributions that generate wave activity that in turn may evolve to such structures. IR occurs in very low beta plasmas and in the presence of strong guiding fields. Although IR is unlikely to release enough energy to provide an important contribution to the heating and acceleration of the solar wind, it affects the way the solar wind is connected to its sources, connecting open field lines to regions of closed fields. This "switching on" provides a mechanism by which plasma near coronal hole boundaries can mix with that trapped inside the closed loops. This mixing can lead to a new energy balance. It may significantly change the characteristics of the solar wind because this plasma is already pre-heated and can potentially have quite different density and particle distributions. It not only replenishes the solar wind, but also affects the electric field, which in turn affects the energy balance. This interpenetration is manifested by the formation of a bimodal ion distribution, with a core and a beam-like population. Such distributions are indeed frequently observed by the Parker Solar Probe. Here we provide a first step towards assessing the role of such processes in accelerating and heating the solar wind.

Switchbacks are sudden and large deflections in the magnetic field that Parker Solar Probe frequently observes in the inner heliosphere. Their ubiquitous occurrence has prompted numerous studies to determine their nature and origin. Our goal is to describe the boundary of these switchbacks using a series of events detected during the spacecraft's first encounter with the Sun. Using FIELDS and SWEAP data, we investigate different methods for determining the boundary normal. The observed boundaries are arc-polarized structures with a rotation that is always contained in a plane. Classical minimum variance analysis (MVA) gives misleading results and overestimates the number of rotational discontinuities. We propose a robust geometric method to identify the nature of these discontinuities, which involves determining whether or not the plane that contains them also includes the origin ($\textbf{B}=0$). Most boundaries appear to have the same characteristics as tangential discontinuities in the context of switchbacks, with little evidence for having rotational discontinuities. We find no effect of the size of the Parker spiral deviation. Furthermore, the thickness of the boundary is within MHD scales. We conclude that most of the switchback boundaries observed by Parker Solar Probe are likely to be closed, in contrast to previous studies. Our results suggest that their erosion may be much slower than expected.

Measurements of transverse magnetic field and velocity components from Parker Solar Probe have revealed a coherent quasi-periodic pattern in the near-Sun solar wind. As well as being Alfvénic and arc-polarised, these deflections were characterised by a consistent orientation and an increased proton core temperature, which was greater parallel to the magnetic field. We show that switchbacks represent the largest deflections within this underlying structure, which is itself consistent with the expected outflow from interchange reconnection simulations. Additionally, the spatial scale of the deflections was estimated to be around $1$\u2009Mm on the Sun, comparable to the jetting activity observed at coronal bright points within the base of coronal plumes. Therefore, our results could represent the in situ signature of interchange reconnection from coronal bright points within plumes, complementing recent numerical and observational studies. We also found a consistent relationship between the proton core temperature and magnetic field angle across the Parker Solar Probe encounters and discussed how such a persistent signature could be more indicative of an in situ mechanism creating a local increase in temperature. In future, observations of minor ions, radio bursts and remote sensing images could help further establish the connection between reconnection events on the Sun and signatures in the solar wind.

We seek to understand the composition and variability of fast (FSW) and slow Alfvenic solar wind (SASW) emerging from coronal holes (CH). We leverage an opportune conjunction between Solar Orbiter and Parker Solar Probe (PSP) during PSP Encounter 11 to include compositional diagnostics from the Solar Orbiter heavy ion sensor (HIS) as these variations provide crucial insights into the origin and nature of the solar wind. We use Potential Field Source Surface (PFSS) and Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) models to connect the observed plasma at PSP and Solar Orbiter to its origin footpoint in the photosphere, and compare these results with the in situ measurements. A very clear signature of a heliospheric current sheet (HCS) crossing as evidenced by enhancements in low FIP elements, ion charge state ratios, proton density, low-Alfvenicity, and polarity estimates validates the combination of modeling, data, and mapping. We identify two FSW streams emerging from small equatorial coronal holes (CH) with low ion charge state ratios, low FIP bias, high-Alfvenicity, and low footpoint brightness, yet anomalously low alpha particle abundance for both streams. We identify high-Alfvenicity slow solar wind emerging from the over-expanded boundary of a CH having intermediate alpha abundance, high-Alfvenicity, and dips in ion charge state ratios corresponding to CH boundaries. Through this comprehensive analysis, we highlight the power of multi-instrument conjunction studies in assessing the sources of the solar wind.

A central problem of space plasma physics is how protons and electrons are heated in a turbulent, magnetized plasma. The differential heating of charged species due to dissipation of turbulent fluctuations plays a key role in solar wind evolution. Measurements from previous heliophysics missions have provided estimates of proton and electron heating rates beyond 0.27 au. Using Parker Solar Probe (PSP) data accumulated during the first ten encounters, we extend the evaluation of the individual rates of heat deposition for protons and electrons in to a distance of 0.063 au (13.5 solar radii), in the newly formed solar wind. The PSP data in the near-Sun environment show different behavior of the electron heat conduction flux from what was predicted from previous fits to Helios and Ulysses data. Consequently, the empirically derived proton and electron heating rates exhibit significantly different behavior than previous reports, with the proton heating becoming increasingly dominant over electron heating at decreasing heliocentric distances. We find that the protons receive about 80% of the total plasma heating at ~ 13 solar radii, slightly higher than the near-Earth values. This empirically derived heating partition between protons and electrons will help to constrain theoretical models of solar wind heating.

Type III radio bursts are not only the most intense but also the most frequently observed solar radio bursts. However, a number of their defining features remain poorly understood. Observational limitations, such as a lack of sufficient spectral and temporal resolution, have hindered a full comprehension of the emission process, especially in the hecto-kilometric wavelengths. Of particular difficulty is the ability to detect the harmonics of type III radio bursts. Hereafter we report for the first detailed observations of type III fundamental-harmonic pairs in the hecto-kilometric wavelengths, observed by the Parker Solar Probe. We present the statistical analysis of spectral characteristics and the polarization measurements of the fundamental-harmonic pairs. Additionally, we quantify various characteristic of the fundamental-harmonic pairs, such as the time-delay and time-profile asymmetry. Our report and preliminary analysis conclude that fundamental-harmonic pairs constitute a majority of all type III radio bursts observed during close encounters 6 -- 10 when the probe is in close proximity to the source region and propagation effects are less pronounced.

We study intermittent coherent structures in solar wind magnetic turbulence from MHD to kinetic plasma scales using Parker Solar Probe data during its first perihelion (at 0.17 au), when the satellite was in the Alfvénic slow wind of 340 km/s. The coherent structures are energetic events localized in time and covering wide range of scales. We detect them using Morlet wavelets. For the first time, we apply a multi-scale analyses in physical space to study these structures. At MHD scales within the inertial range, times scales $\tau \in (1, 10^{2} )$ s, we find (i) current sheets including switchback boundaries and (ii) Alfvén vortices. Within these events, there are embedded structures at smaller scales: typically Alfvén vortices at ion scales, $\tau \in (0.08, 1)$ s, and a compressible vortices at sub-ion scales, $\tau \in (8,80)$ ms. The number of coherent structures grows toward smaller scales: we observe about $\sim 200$ events during 5 h time interval at MHD scales, $\sim 10^{3}$ events ai ion scales and $\sim 10^{4}$ events at sub-ion scales. In general, there are multiple structures of ion and sub-ion scales embedded within one MHD structure. There are also examples of ion and sub-ion scales structures outside of MHD structures. To quantify the relative importance of different type of structures, we do a statistical comparison of the observed structures with the expectations of models of the current sheets and vortices. This comparison is based on amplitude anisotropy of magnetic fluctuations within the structures. The results show the dominance of Alfvén vortices at all scales in contrast to the widespread view of dominance of current sheets. This means that Alfvén vortices are important building blocs of solar wind turbulence.

This Letter reports the first observational estimate of the heating rate in the slowly expanding solar corona. The analysis exploits the simultaneous remote and local observations of the same coronal plasma volume with the Solar Orbiter/Metis and the Parker Solar Probe instruments, respectively, and relies on the basic solar wind magnetohydrodynamic equations. As expected, energy losses are a minor fraction of the solar wind energy flux, since most of the energy dissipation that feeds the heating and acceleration of the coronal flow occurs much closer to the Sun than the heights probed in the present study, which range from 6.3 to 13.3 solar radii. The energy deposited to the supersonic wind is then used to explain the observed slight residual wind acceleration and to maintain the plasma in a non-adiabatic state. As derived in the Wentzel-Kramers-Brillouin limit, the present energy transfer rate estimates provide a lower limit, which can be very useful in refining the turbulence-based modeling of coronal heating and subsequent solar wind acceleration.

Parker Solar Probe (PSP) observes unexpectedly prevalent switchbacks, which are rapid magnetic field reversals that last from seconds to hours, in the inner heliosphere, posing new challenges to understanding their nature, origin, and evolution. In this work, we investigate the thermal states, electron pitch angle distributions, and pressure signatures of both inside and outside switchbacks, separating a switchback into spike, transition region (TR), and quiet period (QP). Based on our analysis, we find that the proton temperature anisotropies in TRs seem to show an intermediate state between spike and QP plasmas. The proton temperatures are more enhanced in spike than in TR and QP, but the alpha temperatures and alpha-to-proton temperature ratios show the opposite trends, implying that the preferential heating mechanisms of protons and alphas are competing in different regions of switchbacks. Moreover, our results suggest that the electron integrated intensities are almost the same across the switchbacks but the electron pitch angle distributions are more isotropic inside than outside switchbacks, implying switchbacks are intact structures but strong scattering of electrons happens inside switchbacks. In addition, the examination of pressures reveals that the total pressures are comparable through an individual switchback, confirming switchbacks are pressure-balanced structures. These characteristics could further our understanding of ion heating, electron scattering, and the structure of switchbacks.

The dissipation of magnetized turbulence is fundamental to understanding energy transfer and heating in astrophysical systems. Collisionless interactions, such as resonant wave-particle process, are known to play a role in shaping turbulent astrophysical environments. Here, we present evidence for the mediation of turbulent dissipation in the solar wind by ion-cyclotron waves. Our results show that ion-cyclotron waves interact strongly with magnetized turbulence, indicating that they serve as a major pathway for the dissipation of large-scale electromagnetic fluctuations. We further show that the presence of cyclotron waves significantly weakens observed signatures of intermittency in sub-ion-kinetic turbulence, which are known to be another pathway for dissipation. These observations results suggest that in the absence of cyclotron resonant waves, non-Gaussian, coherent structures are able to form at sub-ion-kinetic scales, and are likely responsible for turbulent heating. We further find that the cross helicity, i.e. the level of Alfvénicity of the fluctuations, correlates strongly with the presence of ion-scale waves, demonstrating that dissipation of collisionless plasma turbulence is not a universal process, but that the pathways to heating and dissipation at small scales are controlled by the properties of the large-scale turbulent fluctuations. We argue that these observations support the existence of a helicity barrier, in which highly Alfvénic, imbalanced, turbulence is prevented from cascading to sub-ion scales thus resulting in significant ion-cyclotron resonant heating. Our results may serve as a significant step in constraining the nature of turbulent heating in a wide variety of astrophysical systems.

The role of interchange reconnection as a drive mechanism for the solar wind is explored by solving the global magnetic-field-aligned equations describing wind acceleration. Boundary conditions in the low corona, including a reconnection-driven Alfvénic outflow and associated heating differ from previous models. Additional heating of the corona associated with Alfvén waves or other MHD turbulence, which has been the foundation of many earlier models, is neglected. For this simplified model a sufficient condition for interchange reconnection to overcome gravity to drive the wind is derived. The combination of Alfvénic ejection and reconnection-driven heating yields a minimum value of the Alfvén speed of the order of 350-400$km/s$ that is required to drive the wind. Recent evidence based on Parker Solar Probe (PSP) observations suggests that this threshold is typically exceeded in the coronal holes that are the source regions of the fast wind. On the other hand, since reconnection in the coronal environment is predicted to have a bursty character, the magnitude of reconnection outflows can be highly variable. The consequence is a highly non-uniform wind in which in some regions the velocity increases sharply to super-Alfvénic values while in adjacent regions the formation of an asymptotic wind fails. A simple model is constructed to describe the turbulent mixing of these highly-sheared super-Alfvénic flows that suggests these flows are the free-energy source of the Alfvénic turbulence and associated switchbacks that have been documented in the PSP data in the near coronal environment. The global wind profiles are presented and benchmarked with Parker Solar Probe (PSP) observations at 12 solar radii.

Triggered ion-acoustic waves are a pair of coupled waves observed in the previously unexplored plasma regime near the Sun. They may be capable of producing important effects on the solar wind. Because this wave mode has not been observed or studied previously and it is not fully understood, the issue of whether it has a natural origin or is an instrumental artifact can be raised. This paper discusses this issue by examining 13 features of the data such as whether the triggered ion-acoustic waves are electrostatic, whether they are both narrow-band, whether they satisfy the requirement that the electric field is parallel to the k-vector, whether the phase difference between the electric field and the density fluctuations is 90 degrees, whether the two waves have the same phase velocity as they must if they are coupled, whether the phase velocity is that of an ion-acoustic wave, whether they are associated with other parameters such as electron heating, whether the electric field instrument otherwise performed as expected, etc. The conclusion reached from these analyses is that triggered ion-acoustic waves are highly likely to have a natural origin although the possibility that they are artifacts unrelated to processes occurring in the natural plasma cannot be eliminated. This inability to absolutely rule out artifacts as the source of a measured result is a characteristic of all measurements.

A variety of energy sources, ranging from dynamic processes like magnetic reconnection and waves to quasi-steady terms like the plasma pressure, may contribute to the acceleration of the solar wind. We utilize a combination of charged particle and magnetic field observations from the Parker Solar Probe (PSP) to attempt to quantify the steady-state contribution of the proton pressure, the electric potential, and the wave energy to the solar wind proton acceleration observed by PSP between 13.3 and ~100 solar radii (RS). The proton pressure provides a natural kinematic driver of the outflow. The ambipolar electric potential acts to couple the electron pressure to the protons, providing another definite proton acceleration term. Fluctuations and waves, while inherently dynamic, can act as an additional effective steady-state pressure term. To analyze the contributions of these terms, we utilize radial binning of single-point PSP measurements, as well as repeated crossings of the same stream at different distances on individual PSP orbits (i.e. "fast radial scans"). In agreement with previous work, we find that the electric potential contains sufficient energy to fully explain the acceleration of the slower wind streams. On the other hand, we find that the wave pressure plays an increasingly important role in the faster wind streams. The combination of these terms can explain the continuing acceleration of both slow and fast wind streams beyond 13.3 RS.

Magnetic fluctuations in the solar wind are often observed to maintain constant magnitude of the magnetic field in a manner consistent with spherically-polarized large-amplitude Alfvén waves. We investigate the effect of spherical polarization on the magnetic spectral index through a statistical survey of magnetic fluctuations observed by Parker Solar Probe between 20$R_\odot$ and 200$R_\odot$. We find that deviations from spherical polarization, i.e., changes in $|\mathbf{B}|$ (compressive fluctuations) and one-dimensional discontinuities, have a dramatic effect on the scaling behavior of the turbulent fluctuations. We show that shallow $k^{-3/2}$ spectra are only observed for constant magnetic field strength, three-dimensional structures, which we identify as large amplitude Alfvén waves. The presence of compressive fluctuations coincides with a steepening of the spectrum up to $k^{-5/3}$. Steeper power law scalings approaching $k^{-2}$ are observed when the fluctuations are dominated by discontinuities. Near-sun fluctuations are found to be the most spherically polarized, suggesting that this spherical state is fundamental to the generation of the solar wind. With increasing distance from the Sun, fluctuations are found to become less three dimensional and more compressive, which may indicate the breakdown of the Alfvénic equilibrium state.

Determining the mechanism responsible for the plasma heating and particle acceleration is a fundamental problem in the study of the heliosphere. Due to efficient wave-particle interactions of ion-scale waves with charged particles, these waves are widely believed to be a major contributor to ion energization, and their contribution considerably depends on the wave occurrence rate. By analyzing the radial distribution of quasi-monochromatic ion-scale waves observed by the Parker Solar Probe, this work shows that the wave occurrence rate is significantly enhanced in the near-Sun solar wind, specifically 21%$-$29% below 0.3 au, in comparison to 6%$-$14% beyond 0.3 au. The radial decrease of the wave occurrence rate is not only induced by the sampling effect of a single spacecraft detection, but also by the physics relating to the wave excitation, such as the enhanced ion beam instability in the near-Sun solar wind. This work also shows that the wave normal angle $\theta$, the absolute value of ellipticity $\epsilon$, the wave frequency $f$ normalized by the proton cyclotron frequency $f_{\mathrm{cp}}$, and the wave amplitude $\delta B$ normalized by the local background magnetic field $B_0$ slightly vary with the radial distance. The median values of $\theta$, $|\epsilon|$, $f$, and $\delta B$ are about $9^\circ$, $0.73$, $3f_{\mathrm{cp}}$, and $0.01B_0$, respectively. Furthermore, this study proposes that the wave mode nature of the observed left-handed and right-handed polarized waves corresponds to the Alfvén ion cyclotron mode wave and the fast-magnetosonic whistler mode wave, respectively.

Spacecraft observations showed that electron heat conduction in the solar wind is probably regulated by whistler waves, whose origin and efficiency in electron heat flux suppression is actively investigated. In this paper, we present Particle-In-Cell simulations of a combined whistler heat flux and temperature anisotropy instability that can operate in the solar wind. The simulations are performed in a uniform plasma and initialized with core and halo electron populations typical of the solar wind. We demonstrate that the instability produces whistler waves propagating both along (anti-sunward) and opposite (sunward) to the electron heat flux. The saturated amplitudes of both sunward and anti-sunward whistler waves are strongly correlated with their \it initial linear growth rates, $B_{w}/B_0\sim (\gamma/\omega_{ce})^{\nu}$, where for typical electron betas we have $0.6\lesssim \nu\lesssim 0.9$. The correlations of whistler wave amplitudes and spectral widths with plasma parameters (electron beta and temperature anisotropy) revealed in the simulations are consistent with those observed in the solar wind. The efficiency of electron heat flux suppression is positively correlated with the saturated amplitude of sunward whistler waves. The electron heat flux can be suppressed by 10--60% provided that the saturated amplitude of sunward whistler waves exceeds about 1% of background magnetic field. Other experimental applications of the presented results are discussed.

The Quasi-thermal noise (QTN) technique is a reliable tool to yield accurate measurements of the electron parameters in the solar wind. We apply this method on Parker Solar Probe (PSP) observations to derive the total electron temperature ($T_e$) from the linear fit of the high-frequency part of the QTN spectra acquired by the RFS/FIELDS instrument, and present a combination of 12-day period of observations around each perihelion from Encounter One (E01) to Ten (E10) (with E08 not included) with the heliocentric distance varying from about 13 to 60 solar radii ($R_\odot{}$). We find that the total electron temperature decreases with the distance as $\sim$$R^{-0.66}$, which is much slower than adiabatic. The extrapolated $T_e$ based on PSP observations is consistent with the exospheric solar wind model prediction at $\sim$10 $R_\odot{}$, Helios observations at $\sim$0.3 AU and Wind observations at 1 AU. Also, $T_e$, extrapolated back to 10 $R_\odot{}$, is almost the same as the strahl electron temperature $T_s$ (measured by SPAN-E) which is considered to be closely related to or even almost equal to the coronal electron temperature. Furthermore, the radial $T_e$ profiles in the slower solar wind (or flux tube with larger mass flux) are steeper than those in the faster solar wind (or flux tube with smaller mass flux). More pronounced anticorrelated $V_p$-$T_e$ is observed when the solar wind is slower and closer to the Sun.

Drawing connections between heliospheric spacecraft and solar wind sources is a vital step in understanding the evolution of the solar corona into the solar wind and contextualizing \textitin situ timeseries. Furthermore, making advanced predictions of this linkage for ongoing heliospheric missions, such as Parker Solar Probe (PSP), is necessary for achieving useful coordinated remote observations and maximizing scientific return. The general procedure for estimating such connectivity is straightforward (i.e. magnetic field line tracing in a coronal model) but validating the resulting estimates difficult due to the lack of an independent ground truth and limited model constraints. In its most recent orbits, PSP has reached perihelia of 13.3$R_\odot$ and moreover travels extremely fast prograde relative to the solar surface, covering over 120 degrees longitude in three days. Here we present footpoint predictions and subsequent validation efforts for PSP Encounter 10, the first of the 13.3$R_\odot$ orbits, which occurred in November 2021. We show that the longitudinal dependence of \textitin situ plasma data from these novel orbits provides a powerful method of footpoint validation. With reference to other encounters, we also illustrate that the conditions under which source mapping is most accurate for near-ecliptic spacecraft (such as PSP) occur when solar activity is low, but also requires that the heliospheric current sheet is strongly warped by mid-latitude or equatorial coronal holes. Lastly, we comment on the large-scale coronal structure implied by the Encounter 10 mapping, highlighting an empirical equatorial cut of the Alfvèn surface consisting of localized protrusions above unipolar magnetic separatrices.

We report on a study of the Multiview Observatory for Solar Terrestrial Science (MOST) mission that will provide comprehensive imagery and time series data needed to understand the magnetic connection between the solar interior and the solar atmosphere/inner heliosphere. MOST will build upon the successes of SOHO and STEREO missions with new views of the Sun and enhanced instrument capabilities. This article is based on a study conducted at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center that determined the required instrument refinement, spacecraft accommodation, launch configuration, and flight dynamics for mission success. MOST is envisioned as the next generation great observatory positioned to obtain three-dimensional information of large-scale heliospheric structures such as coronal mass ejections, stream interaction regions, and the solar wind itself. The MOST mission consists of 2 pairs of spacecraft located in the vicinity of Sun-Earth Lagrange points L4 (MOST1, MOST3) and L5 (MOST2 and MOST4). The spacecraft stationed at L4 (MOST1) and L5 (MOST2) will each carry seven remote-sensing and three in-situ instrument suites, including a novel radio package known as the Faraday Effect Tracker of Coronal and Heliospheric structures (FETCH). MOST3 and MOST4 will carry only the FETCH instruments and are positioned at variable locations along the Earth orbit up to 20\deg ahead of L4 and 20\deg behind L5, respectively. FETCH will have polarized radio transmitters and receivers on all four spacecraft to measure the magnetic content of solar wind structures propagating from the Sun to Earth using the Faraday rotation technique. The MOST mission will be able to sample the magnetized plasma throughout the Sun-Earth connected space during the mission lifetime over a solar cycle.

The power spectrum of magnetic-field fluctuations in the fast solar wind ($V_{\rm SW}> 500 \mbox{ km} \mbox{ s}^{-1}$) at magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) scales is characterized by two different power laws on either side of a break frequency $f_{\rm b}$. The low-frequency range at frequencies $f$ smaller than $f_{\rm b}$ is often viewed as the energy reservoir that feeds the turbulent cascade at $f>f_{\rm b}$. At heliocentric distances $r$ exceeding $60$ solar radii ($R_{\rm s}$), the power spectrum often has a $1/f$ scaling at $f<f_{\rm b}$; i.e., the spectral index is close to $-1$. In this study, measurements from the encounter $10$ of ${Parker Solar Probe}$ (PSP) with the Sun are used to investigate the evolution of the magnetic-field power spectrum at $f< f_{\rm b}$ at $r<60 R_{\rm s}$ during a fast radial scan of a single fast-solar-wind stream. We find that the spectral index in the low-frequency part of the spectrum decreases from approximately $-0.61$ to $-0.94$ as $r$ increases from $17.4 $ to $45.7$ solar radii. Our results suggest that the $1/f $ spectrum that is often seen at large $r$ in the fast solar wind is not produced at the Sun, but instead develops dynamically as the wind expands outward from the corona into the interplanetary medium.

The trace magnetic power spectrum in the solar wind is known to be characterized by a double power law at scales much larger than the proton gyro-radius, with flatter spectral exponents close to -1 found at the lower frequencies below an inertial range with indices closer to $[-1.5,-1.6]$. The origin of the $1/f$ range is still under debate. In this study, we selected 109 magnetically incompressible solar wind intervals ($\delta |\boldsymbol B|/|\boldsymbol B| \ll 1$) from Parker Solar Probe encounters 1 to 13 which display such double power laws, with the aim of understanding the statistics and radial evolution of the low frequency power spectral exponents from Alfvén point up to 0.3 AU. New observations from closer to the sun show that in the low frequency range solar wind turbulence can display spectra much shallower than $1/f$, evolving asymptotically to $1/f$ as advection time increases, indicating a dynamic origin for the $1/f$ range formation. We discuss the implications of this result on the Matteini et al. (2018) conjecture for the $1/f$ origin as well as example spectra displaying a triple power law consistent with the model proposed by Chandran et al. (2018), supporting the dynamic role of parametric decay in the young solar wind. Our results provide new constraints on the origin of the $1/f$ spectrum and further show the possibility of the coexistence of multiple formation mechanisms.

This letter describes a new phenomenon on the Parker Solar Probe of recurring plasma density enhancements that have $\Delta$n/n ~10% and that occur at a repetition rate of ~5 Hz. They were observed sporadically for about five hours between 14 and 15 solar radii on Parker Solar Probe orbit 12 and they were also seen in the same radial range on both the inbound and outbound orbits 11. Their apparently steady-state existence suggests that their pressure gradient was balanced by the electric field. The EX electric field component produced from this requirement is in good agreement with that measured. This provides strong evidence for the measurement accuracy of the density fluctuations and the X- and Y-components of the electric field (the Z-component was not measured). The electrostatic density waves were accompanied by an electromagnetic low frequency wave which occurred with the electrostatic harmonics. The amplitudes of these electrostatic and electromagnetic waves at $\ge$ 1 Hz were greater than the amplitude of the Alfvenic turbulence in their vicinity so they can be important for the heating, scattering, and acceleration of the plasma. The existence of this pair of waves is consistent with the observed plasma distributions and is explained by a magneto-acoustic wave theory that produces a low frequency electromagnetic wave and electrostatic harmonics.

Context. Whistler waves are electromagnetic waves produced by electron-driven instabilities, that in turn can reshape the electron distributions via wave-particle interactions. In the solar wind, they are one of the main candidates for explaining the scattering of the strahl electron population into the halo at increasing radial distances from the Sun and for subsequently regulating the solar wind heat flux. However, it is unclear what type of instability dominates to drive whistlers in the solar wind. Aims. Our goal is to study whistler wave parameters in the young solar wind sampled by Parker Solar Probe (PSP). The wave normal angle (WNA) in particular is a key parameter to discriminate between the generation mechanisms of these waves. Methods. We analyze the cross-spectral matrices of magnetic fieldfluctuations measured by the Search-Coil Magnetometer (SCM) and processed by the Digital Fields Board (DFB) from the FIELDS suite during PSP's first perihelion. Results. Among the 2701 wave packets detected in the cross spectra, namely individual bins in time and frequency, most were quasi-parallel to the background magnetic field but a significant part (3%) of observed waves had oblique (> 45\deg) WNA. The validation analysis conducted with the time-series waveforms reveal that this percentage is a lower limit. Moreover, we find that about 64% of the whistler waves detected in the spectra are associated with at least one magnetic dip. Conclusions. We conclude that magnetic dips provides favorable conditions for the generation of whistler waves. We hypothesize that the whistlers detected in magnetic dips are locally generated by the thermal anisotropy as quasi-parallel and can gain obliqueness during their propagation. We finally discuss the implication of our results for the scattering of the strahl in the solar wind.

Switchbacks are rapid magnetic field reversals that last from seconds to hours. Current Parker Solar Probe (PSP) observations pose many open questions in regard to the nature of switchbacks. For example, are they stable as they propagate through the inner heliosphere, and how are they formed? In this work, we aim to investigate the structure and origin of switchbacks. In order to study the stability of switchbacks, we suppose the small-scale current sheets therein are generated by magnetic braiding, and they should work to stabilize the switchbacks. With more than one thousand switchbacks identified with PSP observations in seven encounters, we find many more current sheets inside than outside switchbacks, indicating that these microstructures should work to stabilize the S-shaped structures of switchbacks. Additionally, we study the helium variations to trace the switchbacks to their origins. We find both helium-rich and helium-poor populations in switchbacks, implying that the switchbacks could originate from both closed and open magnetic field regions in the Sun. Moreover, we observe that the alpha-proton differential speeds also show complex variations as compared to the local Alfvén speed. The joint distributions of both parameters show that low helium abundance together with low differential speed is the dominant state in switchbacks. The presence of small-scale current sheets in switchbacks along with the helium features are in line with the hypothesis that switchbacks could originate from the Sun via interchange reconnection process. However, other formation mechanisms are not excluded.

The Lunar Surface Electromagnetics Explorer 'LuSEE Night' is a low frequency radio astronomy experiment that will be delivered to the farside of the Moon by the NASA Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) program in late 2025 or early 2026. The payload system is being developed jointly by NASA and the US Department of Energy (DOE) and consists of a 4 channel, 50 MHz Nyquist baseband receiver system and 2 orthogonal $\sim$6m tip-to-tip electric dipole antennas. LuSEE Night will enjoy standalone operations through the lunar night, without the electromagnetic interference (EMI) of an operating lander system and antipodal to our noisy home planet.

We present a Bayesian analysis of data from the FIELDS instrument on board the Parker Solar Probe (PSP) spacecraft with the aim of constraining low frequency ($\lesssim$ 6 MHz) sky in preparation for several upcoming lunar-based experiments. We utilize data recorded during PSP's ``coning roll'' maneuvers, in which the axis of the spacecraft is pointed 45$^{\circ}$ off of the Sun. The spacecraft then rotates about a line between the Sun and the spacecraft with a period of 24 minutes. We reduce the data into two formats: roll-averaged, in which the spectra are averaged over the roll, and phase-binned, in which the spectra are binned according to the phase of the roll. We construct a forward model of the FIELDS observations that includes numerical simulations of the antenna beam, an analytic emissivity function of the galaxy, and estimates of the absorption due to free electrons. Fitting 5 parameters, we find that the roll-averaged data can be fit well by this model and we obtain posterior parameter constraints that are in general agreement with previous estimates. The model is not, however, able to fit the phase-binned data well, likely due to limitations such as the lack of non-smooth emission structure at both small and large scales, enforced symmetry between the northern and southern galactic hemispheres, and large uncertainties in the free electron density. This suggests that significant improvement in the low frequency sky model is needed in order to fully and accurately represent the sky at frequencies below 6 MHz.

We investigate the generation and evolution of switchbacks (SBs), the nature of the sub-Alfvénic wind observed by Parker Solar Probe (PSP), and the morphology of the Alfvénic transition, all of which are key issues in solar wind research. First we highlight a special structure in the pristine solar wind, termed a low Mach-number boundary layer (LMBL). An increased Alfvén radius and suppressed SBs are observed within an LMBL. A probable source on the Sun for an LMBL is the peripheral region inside a coronal hole with rapidly diverging open fields. The sub-Alfvénic wind detected by PSP is an LMBL flow by nature. The similar origin and similar properties of the sub-Alfvénic intervals favor a wrinkled surface for the morphology of the Alfvénic transition. We find that a larger deflection angle tends to be associated with a higher Alfvén Mach number. The magnetic deflections have an origin well below the Alfvén critical point, and deflection angles larger than $90^{\circ}$ seem to occur only when $M_{\rm A} \gtrsim 2$. The velocity enhancement in units of the local Alfvén speed generally increases with the deflection angle, which is explained by a simple model. A nonlinearly evolved, saturated state is revealed for SBs, where the local Alfvén speed is roughly an upper bound for the velocity enhancement. In the context of these results, the most promising theory on the origin of SBs is the model of expanding waves and turbulence, and the patchy distribution of SBs is attributed to modulation by reductions in the Alfvén Mach number. Finally, a picture on the generation and evolution of SBs is created based on the results.

The heating and acceleration of the solar wind remains one of the fundamental unsolved problems in heliophysics. It is usually observed that the proton temperature $T_i$ is highly correlated with the solar wind speed $V_{SW}$, while the electron temperature $T_e$ shows anti-correlation or no clear correlation with the solar wind speed. Here we inspect both Parker Solar Probe (PSP) and WIND data and compare the observations with simulation results. PSP observations below 30 solar radii clearly show a positive correlation between proton temperature and wind speed and a negative correlation between electron temperature and wind speed. One year (2019) of WIND data confirm that proton temperature is positively correlated with solar wind speed, but the electron temperature increases with the solar wind speed for slow wind while it decreases with the solar wind speed for fast wind. Using a one-dimensional Alfvén-wave-driven solar wind model with different proton and electron temperatures, we for the first time find that if most of the dissipated Alfvén wave energy heats the ions instead of electrons, a positive $T_i-V_{SW}$ correlation and a negative $T_e-V_{SW}$ correlation arise naturally. If the electrons gain a small but finite portion of the dissipated wave energy, the $T_e-V_{SW}$ correlation evolves with radial distance to the Sun such that the negative correlation gradually turns positive. The model results show that Alfvén waves are one of the possible explanations of the observed evolution of proton and electron temperatures in the solar wind.

We present EUV solar observations showing evidence for omnipresent jetting activity driven by small-scale magnetic reconnection at the base of the solar corona. We argue that the physical mechanism that heats and drives the solar wind at its source is ubiquitous magnetic reconnection in the form of small-scale jetting activity (i.e., a.k.a. jetlets). This jetting activity, like the solar wind and the heating of the coronal plasma, are ubiquitous regardless of the solar cycle phase. Each event arises from small-scale reconnection of opposite polarity magnetic fields producing a short-lived jet of hot plasma and Alfvén waves into the corona. The discrete nature of these jetlet events leads to intermittent outflows from the corona, which homogenize as they propagate away from the Sun and form the solar wind. This discovery establishes the importance of small-scale magnetic reconnection in solar and stellar atmospheres in understanding ubiquitous phenomena such as coronal heating and solar wind acceleration. Based on previous analyses linking the switchbacks to the magnetic network, we also argue that these new observations might provide the link between the magnetic activity at the base of the corona and the switchback solar wind phenomenon. These new observations need to be put in the bigger picture of the role of magnetic reconnection and the diverse form of jetting in the solar atmosphere.

In this study we examine the radial dependence of the inertial and dissipation range indices, as well as the spectral break separating the inertial and dissipation range in power density spectra of interplanetary magnetic field fluctuations using \it Parker Solar Probe data from the fifth solar encounter between $\sim$0.1 and $\sim$0.7 au. The derived break wavenumber compares reasonably well with previous estimates at larger radial distances and is consistent with gyro-resonant damping of Alfvénic fluctuations by thermal protons. We find that the inertial scale power law index varies between approximately -1.65 and -1.45. This is consistent with either the Kolmogorov (-5/3) or Iroshnikov-Kraichnan (-3/2) values, has a very weak radial dependence with a possible hint that the spectrum becomes steeper closer to the Sun. The dissipation range power law index, however, has a clear dependence on radial distance (and turbulence age), decreasing from -3 near 0.7 au (4 days) to -4 [$\pm$0.3] at 0.1 au (0.75 days) closer to the Sun.

The Parker Solar Probe is in a solar orbit with a perihelion for orbit 12 at 13.3 solar radii. The electric field experiment on this satellite observes what we call triggered ion-acoustic waves as the most dominant wave mode above a few Hz within the solar radial distance of 15-25 solar radii. In this mode, a few Hz electrostatic wave is typically accompanied by bursts of a few hundred Hz wave whose bursts are phase locked with each low frequency wave period. Plasma density fluctuations with ∆n/n~0.1 accompany these waves and they have no magnetic field component. The wave durations can be hours and their field and density fluctuations are nearly pure sine waves. They are identified as ion-acoustic waves. The low and high frequency waves are measured to have the same phase velocity within experimental uncertainties, which is a requirement associated with their phase locked relationship. From the measured wavelength, the potential associated with the low frequency wave is estimated to be ~10 Volts, which can result in electron heating via the Landau resonance that is in agreement with observations of the core electron temperature increases at times of such waves. Their phase locked relationship and pure frequency are surprising features that characterize a new regime of instability and evolution of ion-acoustic waves that may not have been reported previously. That these waves are an instrumental effect unrelated to natural processes is considered. While this is unlikely, the possibility that these waves are artificial cannot be rule out

The acceleration of the solar coronal plasma to supersonic speeds is one of the most fundamental yet unresolved problem in heliophysics. Despite the success of Parker's pioneering theory on an isothermal solar corona, the realistic solar wind is observed to be non-isothermal, and the decay of its temperature with radial distance usually can be fitted to a polytropic model. In this work, we use Parker Solar Probe data from the first nine encounters to estimate the polytropic index of solar wind protons. The estimated polytropic index varies roughly between 1.25 and 1.5 and depends strongly on solar wind speed, faster solar wind on average displaying a smaller polytropic index. We comprehensively analyze the 1D spherically symmetric solar wind model with polytropic index $\gamma \in [1,5/3]$. We derive a closed algebraic equation set for transonic stellar flows, i.e. flows that pass the sound point smoothly. We show that an accelerating wind solution only exists in the parameter space bounded by $C_0/C_g < 1$ and $(C_0/C_g)^2 > 2(\gamma-1)$ where $C_0$ and $C_g$ are the surface sound speed and one half of the escape velocity of the star, and no stellar wind exists for $\gamma > 3/2$. With realistic solar coronal temperatures, the observed solar wind with $\gamma \gtrsim 1.25$ cannot be explained by the simple polytropic model. We show that mechanisms such as strong heating in the lower corona that leads to a thick isothermal layer around the Sun and large-amplitude Alfvén wave pressure are necessary to remove the constraint in $\gamma$ and accelerate the solar wind to high speeds.

Parker Solar Probe and Solar Orbiter data are used to investigate the radial evolution of magnetic turbulence between $0.06 ~ \lesssim R ~\lesssim 1$ au. The spectrum is studied as a function of scale, normalized to the ion inertial scale $d_{i}$. In the vicinity of the Sun, the inertial range is limited to a narrow range of scales and exhibits a power-law exponent of, $\alpha_{B} = -3/2$, independent of plasma parameters. The inertial range grows with distance, progressively extending to larger spatial scales, while steepening towards a $\alpha_{B} =-5/3$ scaling. It is observed that spectra for intervals with large magnetic energy excesses and low Alfvénic content steepen significantly with distance, in contrast to highly Alfvénic intervals that retain their near-Sun scaling. The occurrence of steeper spectra in slower wind streams may be attributed to the observed positive correlation between solar wind speed and Alfvénicity.

The fast solar wind that fills the heliosphere originates from deep within regions of open magnetic field on the Sun called coronal holes. The energy source responsible for accelerating the plasma to high speeds is widely debated, however there is evidence that it is ultimately magnetic in nature with candidate mechanisms including wave heating^(1,2) and interchange reconnection^(3,4,5). The coronal magnetic field near the solar surface is structured on scales associated with supergranulation convection cells, where descending flows create intense fields. The energy density in these network magnetic field bundles is a likely candidate as an energy source of the wind. Here we report measurements of fast solar wind streams from the Parker Solar Probe (PSP) spacecraft^6 which provides strong evidence for the interchange reconnection mechanism. We show that supergranulation structure at the coronal hole base remains imprinted in the near-Sun solar wind resulting in asymmetric patches of magnetic 'switchbacks'^(7,8) and bursty wind streams with power law-like energetic ion spectra to beyond 100 keV. Computer simulations of interchange reconnection support key features of the observations, including the ion spectra. Important characteristics of interchange reconnection in the low corona are inferred from the data including that the reconnection is collisionless and that the energy release rate is sufficient to power the fast wind. In this scenario, open magnetic flux undergoes continuous reconnection and the wind is driven both by the resulting plasma pressure and the radial Alfvenic flow bursts.

We utilize observations from the Parker Solar Probe (PSP) to study the radial evolution of the solar wind in the inner heliosphere. We analyze electron velocity distribution functions observed by the Solar Wind Electrons, Alphas, and Protons suite to estimate the coronal electron temperature and the local electric potential in the solar wind. From the latter value and the local flow speed, we compute the asymptotic solar wind speed. We group the PSP observations by asymptotic speed, and characterize the radial evolution of the wind speed, electron temperature, and electric potential within each group. In agreement with previous work, we find that the electron temperature (both local and coronal) and the electric potential are anti-correlated with wind speed. This implies that the electron thermal pressure and the associated electric field can provide more net acceleration in the slow wind than in the fast wind. We then utilize the inferred coronal temperature and the extrapolated electric + gravitational potential to show that both electric field driven exospheric models and the equivalent thermally driven hydrodynamic models can explain the entire observed speed of the slowest solar wind streams. On the other hand, neither class of model can explain the observed speed of the faster solar wind streams, which thus require additional acceleration mechanisms.

Several studies in the near-Earth environment show that intermittent structures are important sites of energy dissipation and particle energization. Recent Parker Solar Probe (PSP) data, sampled in the near-Sun environment, have shown that proton heating is concentrated near coherent structures, suggesting local heating of protons by turbulent cascade in this region. However, whether electrons exhibit similar behavior in the near-Sun environment is not clear. Here, we address this question using PSP data collected near the Sun during the first seven orbits. We use the partial variance of increments (PVI) technique to identify coherent structures. We find that electron temperature is preferentially enhanced near strong discontinuities, although the association is somewhat weaker than that with protons. Our results provide strong support for inhomogeneous heating of electrons in the "young" solar wind, associated with dissipation of turbulent fluctuations near intermittent structures.

Parker Solar Probe (PSP) has shown that the solar wind in the inner heliosphere is characterized by the quasi omni-presence of magnetic switchbacks ("switchback" hereinafter), local backward-bends of magnetic field lines. Switchbacks also tend to come in patches, with a large-scale modulation that appears to have a spatial scale size comparable to supergranulation on the Sun. Here we inspect data from the first ten encounters of PSP focusing on different time intervals when clear switchback patches were observed by PSP. We show that the switchbacks modulation, on a timescale of several hours, seems to be independent of whether PSP is near perihelion, when it rapidly traverses large swaths of longitude remaining at the same heliocentric distance, or near the radial-scan part of its orbit, when PSP hovers over the same longitude on the Sun while rapidly moving radially inwards or outwards. This implies that switchback patches must also have an intrinsically temporal modulation most probably originating at the Sun. Between two consecutive patches, the magnetic field is usually very quiescent with weak fluctuations. We compare various parameters between the quiescent intervals and the switchback intervals. The results show that the quiescent intervals are typically less Alfvénic than switchback intervals, and the magnetic power spectrum is usually shallower in quiescent intervals. We propose that the temporal modulation of switchback patches may be related to the "breathing" of emerging flux that appears in images as the formation of "bubbles" below prominences in the Hinode/SOT observations.

$PSP$ and $SolO$ data are utilized to investigate magnetic field intermittency in the solar wind (SW). Small-scale intermittency $(20-100d_{i})$ is observed to radially strengthen when methods relying on higher-order moments are considered ($SF_q$, $SDK$), but no clear trend is observed at larger scales. However, lower-order moment-based methods (e.g., PVI) are deemed more appropriate for examining the evolution of the bulk of Coherent Structures (CSs), $PVI \ge 3$. Using PVI, we observe a scale-dependent evolution in the fraction of the dataset occupied by CSs, $f_{PVI \ge 3}$. Specifically, regardless of the SW speed, a subtle increase is found in $f_{PVI\ge3}$ for $\ell =20 d_i$, in contrast to a more pronounced radial increase in CSs observed at larger scales. Intermittency is investigated in relation to plasma parameters. Though, slower SW speed intervals exhibit higher $f_{PVI \geq 6}$ and higher kurtosis maxima, no statistical differences are observed for $f_{PVI \geq 3}$. Highly Alfvénic intervals, display lower levels of intermittency. The anisotropy with respect to the angle between the magnetic field and SW flow, $\Theta_{VB}$ is investigated. Intermittency is weaker at $\Theta_{VB} \approx 0^{\circ}$ and is strengthened at larger angles. Considering the evolution at a constant alignment angle, a weakening of intermittency is observed with increasing advection time of the SW. Our results indicate that the strengthening of intermittency in the inner heliosphere is driven by the increase in comparatively highly intermittent perpendicular intervals sampled by the probes with increasing distance, an effect related directly to the evolution of the Parker spiral.

Wave emissions at frequencies near electron gyrofrequency harmonics are observed at small heliocentric distances below about 40 solar radii and are known to occur in regions with quiescent magnetic fields. We show the close connection of these waves with the large-scale properties of the magnetic field. Near electron gyrofrequency harmonics emissions occur only when the ambient magnetic field points to a narrow range of directions bounded by polar and azimuthal angular ranges in the RTN coordinate system of correspondingly $80^{\circ} \lesssim \theta_B \lesssim 100^{\circ}$ and $10^{\circ} \lesssim \phi_B \lesssim 30^{\circ}$. We show that the amplitudes of wave emissions are highest when both angles are close to the center of their respective angular interval favorable to wave emissions. The intensity of wave emissions correlates with the magnetic field angular changes at both large and small time scales. Wave emissions intervals correlate with intervals of decreases in the amplitudes of broadband magnetic fluctuations at low frequencies of 10Hz-100Hz. We discuss possible generation mechanisms of the waves.

Solar nanoflares are small eruptive events releasing magnetic energy in the quiet corona. If nanoflares follow the same physics as their larger counterparts, they should emit hard X-rays (HXRs) but with a rather faint intensity. A copious and continuous presence of nanoflares would deliver enormous amounts of energy into the solar corona, possibly accounting for its high temperatures. To date, there has not been any direct observation of such sustained and persistent HXRs from the quiescent Sun. However, Hannah et al. in 2010 constrained the quiet Sun HXR emission using almost 12 days of quiescent solar-off-pointing observations by RHESSI. These observations set upper limits at $3.4\times 10^{-2}$ photons$^{-1}$ s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$ keV$^{-1}$ and $9.5\times 10^{-4}$ photons$^{-1}$ s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$ keV$^{-1}$ for the 3-6 keV and 6-12 keV energy ranges, respectively. Observing feeble HXRs is challenging because it demands high sensitivity and dynamic range instruments in HXRs. The Focusing Optics X-ray Solar Imager (FOXSI) sounding rocket experiment excels in these two attributes. Particularly, FOXSI completed its third successful flight (FOXSI-3) on September 7th, 2018. During FOXSI-3's flight, the Sun exhibited a fairly quiet configuration, displaying only one aged non-flaring active region. Using the entire $\sim$6.5 minutes of FOXSI-3 data, we constrained the quiet Sun emission in HXRs. We found $2\sigma$ upper limits in the order of $\sim 10^{-3}$ photons$^{-1}$ s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$ keV$^{-1}$ for the 5-10 keV energy range. FOXSI-3's upper limit is consistent with what was reported by Hannah et al., 2010, but FOXSI-3 achieved this result using $\sim$1/2640 less time than RHESSI. A possible future spacecraft using FOXSI's concept would allow enough observation time to constrain the current HXR quiet Sun limits further or perhaps even make direct detections.

Magnetic switchbacks, or sudden reversals in the magnetic field's radial direction, are one of the more striking observations of Parker Solar Probe (PSP) thus far in its mission. While their precise production mechanisms are still unknown, the two main theories are via interchange reconnection events and in-situ generation. In this work density and abundance variations of alpha particles are studied inside and outside individual switchbacks. We find no consistent compositional differences in the alpha particle abundance ratio, $n_{\alpha p}$, inside vs outside, nor do we observe any signature when separating the switchbacks according to $V_{\alpha p}/V_{pw}$, the ratio of alpha-proton differential speed to the wave phase speed (speed the switchback is travelling). We argue these measurements cannot be used to rule in favour of one production mechanism over the other, due to the distance between PSP and the postulated interchange reconnection events. In addition we examine the 3D velocity fluctuations of protons and alpha particles within individual switchbacks. While switchbacks are always associated with increases in proton velocity, alpha velocities may be enhanced, unchanged, or decrease. This is due to the interplay between $V_{pw}$ and $V_{\alpha p}$, with the Alfvénic motion of the alpha particles vanishing as the difference $|V_{pw} - V_{\alpha p}|$ decreases. We show how the Alfvénic motion of both the alphas and the protons through switchbacks can be understood as approximately rigid arm rotation about the location of the wave frame, and illustrate that the wave frame can therefore be estimated using particle measurements alone, via sphere fitting.

Sheaths ahead of interplanetary coronal mass ejections (ICMEs) are turbulent heliospheric structures. Knowledge of their structure and fluctuations is important for understanding their geoeffectiveness, their role in accelerating particles, and the interaction of ICMEs with the solar wind. We studied observations from the Parker Solar Probe of a sheath observed at 0.5 au in March 2019, ahead of a slow streamer blowout CME. To examine the MHD-scale turbulent properties, we calculated fluctuation amplitudes, magnetic compressibility, partial variance of increments (PVI), cross helicity ($\sigma_c$), residual energy ($\sigma_r$), and the Jensen-Shannon permutation entropy and complexity. The sheath consisted of slow and fast flows separated by a 15-min change in magnetic sector that coincided with current sheet crossings and a velocity shear zone. Fluctuation amplitudes and PVI were greater through the sheath than upstream. Fluctuations had mostly negative $\sigma_r$ and positive $\sigma_c$ in the sheath, the latter indicating an anti-sunward sense of propagation. The velocity shear region marked an increase in temperature and specific entropy, and the faster flow behind had local patches of positive $\sigma_r$ as well as higher fluctuation amplitudes and PVI. Fluctuations in the preceding wind and sheath were stochastic, with the sheath fluctuations showing lower entropy and higher complexity than upstream. The two-part sheath structure likely resulted from a warp in the heliospheric current sheet (HCS) being swept up and compressed. The ejecta accelerated and heated the wind at the sheath rear, which then interacted with the slower wind ahead of the HCS warp. This caused differences in fluctuation properties across the sheath. Sheaths of slow ICMEs can thus have complex structure where fluctuation properties are not just downstream shock properties, but are generated within the sheath.

In this letter we report observations of magnetic switchback (SB) features near 1 au using data from the \emphWind spacecraft. These features appear to be strikingly similar to the ones observed by the Parker Solar Probe mission (PSP) closer to the Sun: namely, one-sided spikes (or enhancements) in the solar-wind bulk speed $V$ that correlate/anti-correlate with the spikes seen in the radial-field component $B_R$. In the solar-wind streams that we analyzed, these specific SB features near 1 au are associated with large-amplitude Alfvénic oscillations that propagate outward from the sun along a local background (prevalent) magnetic field $\bf{B}_0$ that is nearly radial. We also show that, when $\bf{B}_0$ is nearly perpendicular to the radial direction, the large amplitude Alfvénic oscillations display variations in $V$ that are two-sided (i.e., $V$ alternately increases and decreases depending on the vector $\Delta\bf{B}=\bf{B} - \bf{B}_0$). As a consequence, SBs may not appear always as one-sided spikes in $V$, especially at larger heliocentric distances where the local background field statistically departs from the radial direction. We suggest that SBs can be well described by large-amplitude Alfvénic fluctuations if the field rotation is computed with respect to a well-determined local background field that, in some cases, may deviate from the large-scale Parker field.

Type III radio bursts are the result of plasma emission from mildly relativistic electron beams propagating from the low solar corona into the heliosphere where they can eventually be detected in situ if they align with the location of a heliospheric spacecraft. Here we observe a type III radio burst from 0.1-16 MHz using the Parker Solar Probe (PSP) FIELDS Radio Frequency Spectrometer (RFS), and from 20-80 MHz using the Low Frequency Array (LOFAR). This event was not associated with any detectable flare activity but was part of an ongoing type III and noise storm that occurred during PSP encounter 2. A deprojection of the LOFAR radio sources into 3D space shows that the type III radio burst sources were located on open magnetic field from 1.6-3 R$_\odot$ and originated from a near-equatorial active region around longitude E48$^o$. Combining PSP/RFS observations with WIND/WAVES and STEREO/WAVES, we reconstruct the type III radio source trajectory in the heliosphere interior to PSP's position, assuming ecliptic confinement. An energetic electron enhancement is subsequently detected in situ at the STEREO-A spacecraft at compatible times although the onset and duration suggests the individual burst contributes a subset of the enhancement. This work shows relatively small-scale flux emergence in the corona can cause the injection of electron beams from the low corona into the heliosphere, without needing a strong solar flare. The complementary nature of combined ground and space-based radio observations, especially in the era of PSP, is also clearly highlighted by this study.

Predictions of coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and solar energetic particles (SEPs) are a central issue in space weather forecasting. In recent years, interest in space weather predictions has expanded to include impacts at other planets beyond Earth as well as spacecraft scattered throughout the heliosphere. In this sense, the scope of space weather science now encompasses the whole heliospheric system, and multi-point measurements of solar transients can provide useful insights and validations for prediction models. In this work, we aim to analyse the whole inner heliospheric context between two eruptive flares that took place in late 2020, i.e. the M4.4 flare of November 29 and the C7.4 flare of December 7. This period is especially interesting because the STEREO-A spacecraft was located ~60\deg east of the Sun-Earth line, giving us the opportunity to test the capabilities of "predictions at 360\deg" using remote-sensing observations from the Lagrange L1 and L5 points as input. We simulate the CMEs that were ejected during our period of interest and the SEPs accelerated by their shocks using the WSA-Enlil-SEPMOD modelling chain and four sets of input parameters, forming a "mini-ensemble". We validate our results using in-situ observations at six locations, including Earth and Mars. We find that, despite some limitations arising from the models' architecture and assumptions, CMEs and shock-accelerated SEPs can be reasonably studied and forecast in real time at least out to several tens of degrees away from the eruption site using the prediction tools employed here.