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Race and ethnicity in Colombia

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Ethnicity according to the 2018 Colombian Census:[1]

  No ethnic affiliation (Mostly Whites and Mestizos) (87.58%)
  Afro-Colombian (includes Mixed) (6.68%)
  Amerindian (4.31%)
  Not Stated (1.35%)
  Raizal (0.06%)
  Palenquero (0.02%)
  Romani (0.01%)

Race and ethnicity in Colombia descend mainly from three racial groups—Europeans, Amerindians, and Africans—that have mixed throughout the last 500 years of the country's history. Some demographers describe Colombia as one of the most ethnically diverse countries in the Western Hemisphere and in the World, with 900 different ethnic groups. Most Colombians identify themselves and others according to ancestry, physical appearance, and sociocultural status. Social relations reflect the importance attached to certain characteristics associated with a given racial group. Although these characteristics no longer accurately differentiate social categories, they still contribute to one's rank in the social hierarchy. A study from Rojas et al. involving 15 departments determined that the average Colombian (of all races) has a mixture of 47% Amerindian, 42% European, and 11% African.[2] These proportions also vary widely among ethnicities.

Genetic ancestry of Colombians according to a study published on the American Journal of Physical Anthropology:[2]

  Amerindian (47%)
  European (42%)
  African (11%)

Racial/ethnic groups and their frequency

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Ethnic groups of Colombia according to Latinobarómetro 2023:[3]

  Mestizo (50.3%)
  White (26.4%)
  Amerindian (9.5%)
  Black (9.0%)
  Mulatto (4.4%)
  Asian (0.4%)
Indigenous Koguis Shaman at Ciudad Perdida

Colombia officially acknowledges three ethnic minority groups: the Afro-Colombian, indigenous, and Romani populations. The Afro-Colombian population consists mainly of blacks, mulattoes, raizales, palenqueros, and zambos (a term used since colonial times for individuals of mixed Amerindian and black ancestry). A 1999 resolution of the Ministry of the Interior and Justice acknowledged the Romani population as a Colombian ethnic group, although Romani people were not recognized in the 1991 constitution (unlike the Afro-Colombian and indigenous populations). Estimates vary widely, but the 2018 census found that the ethnic minority populations had increased significantly since the 1993 census, possibly owing to the methodology used. Specifically, it reported that the Afro-Colombian population accounted for 6.68 percent of the national population; the Amerindian population, for 4.31 percent; and the others like Romani for 0.06 percent[4] The 2018 census reported that the "non-ethnic population", consisting of whites and mestizos, constituted 87 percent of the national population.[5] A study by Latinobarómetro in 2023 estimates that 50.3% of the population are Mestizo or around 26 million people, 26.4% are White, 9.5% are Indigenous or around 5 million people, 9.0% are Black, 4.4% are Mulatto, and 0.4% are Asian, however estimates of each vary between sources. Therefore, it can be estimated that 26 million people are Mestizos (being the largest ethnic group in the country), 14 million people are White (includes castizos and euro-descendants), 5 million people are Indigenous, 5 million people are Black (excluding mulattos), 2 million people are Mulatto, and 200 thousand people are Asian, showcasing the diversity of Colombia as a nation.[6]

Rojas et al. (2010) measured the genetic mixture for fourteen Colombian departments:[2]

Department Amerindian contribution European contribution African contribution
Antioquia 26% 63.5% 10.3%
Antioquia (Peque) 62.2% 31.1% 5.8%
Bolívar 32.9% 23.3% 43.8%
Caldas 36.4% 59.6% 4.3%
Casanare 74.7% 24.5% 0.8%
Cauca 56.9% 19.6% 23.5%
Chocó (Afro Colombians) 10.8% 21.1% 68.1%
Chocó (Mestizos) 44.8% 46.6% 8.6%
Cundinamarca 51.6% 45.4% 3%
Huila 60.8% 39.6% 0%
Magdalena 21.8% 50% 28.2%
Nariño 65.2% 32.1% 2.7%
Norte de Santander 53% 42.2% 4.7%
Quindío 38.3% 57.3% 4.4%
Santander 42.4% 56.2% 1.4%
Valle del Cauca 39.3% 39.2% 21.5%
Colombia 47% 42% 11%

Distribution of racial/ethnic groups geographically

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The various groups exist in differing concentrations throughout the nation, in a pattern that to some extent goes back to colonial origins. The Whites tend to live mainly in the urban centers like Bogotá or Medellín. The populations of the major cities are primarily mestizo and white. The large Mestizo population includes most campesinos (people living in rural areas) of the Andean highlands, where some Spanish conquerors mixed with the women of Amerindian chiefdoms. Mestizos had always lived in the cities as well, as artisans and small tradesmen, and they have played a major part in the urban expansion of recent decades.[5] According to the 2005 census, the heaviest concentration of the indigenous population (22 to 61 percent) is located in the departments of Amazonas, La Guajira, Guainía, Vaupés, and Vichada. The secondary concentrations of 6 to 21 percent are located in the departments of Sucre, Córdoba, Chocó, Cauca and Nariño. Amerindian communities have legal autonomy to enforce their own traditional laws and customs. Despite being around 4-10% of the population, the indigenous population has managed to regain nearly a quarter of the country's land titles under the 1991 constitution.[7]

People with African ancestry in Colombia are concentrated mostly in coastal areas.
Amerindian population of Colombia by municipality in 2005

The 1991 National Constitution of Colombia defined Territorial Entities (Entidades Territoriales) as departments, districts, municipalities and indigenous territories. Within an Indigenous Territory Entity (ETI) the people have autonomy in managing their interests, and within the limits of the constitution have the right to manage resources and define taxes required to perform their duties. ETIs are to be defined by the government in conformance with the Organic Law on Land Management. However, this law has yet to be sanctioned so in practice the territories are unregulated.[8]

The Black, Zambo and Mulatto populations have largely remained in the lowland areas on the Caribbean and Pacific coasts, its islands, and along the Cauca and Magdalena Rivers. The Afro desendent Colombian population is concentrated primarily (21% to 80% of their departments) in the departments of Chocó, San Andrés, Bolívar and in the lowland parts of Cauca (communities such as Lopez de Micay, Guapi, and Timbiqui), and Valle del Cauca departments (in areas like the largest city on the Pacific coast, Buenaventura, and large concentration in Cali), with secondary concentrations (10 to 18 percent of the departments) in Atlántico, Córdoba, Magdalena, Nariño (communities like El Charco, Tumaco and Barbacoas), Antioquia (mostly in Uraba region), La Guajira, Cesar, and Sucre departments. Chocó is the department with the largest concentration of African-descendants in Colombia.[9]

The population of the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina, which Colombia inherited from Spain after the Spanish had overcome an initial British settlement, is mostly Afro-Colombian, including several thousand raizal blacks. Despite the length of time during which Colombia has had jurisdiction over them, most raizales on these Caribbean islands have retained their Protestant religion, have continued to speak an English-based creole language as well as English, and have regarded themselves as a group distinct from mainland residents. A minute percentage of the insular population originated in Scotland and Syria.[10]

Ethnic groups according to self identification. Data from the 2018 Colombian Census.
Department Total population (2018) Indigenous[11] %[11] Afro-Colombian[12] %[12] Other (most being Mestizo or White) %
 Amazonas 66,056 38,130 57.7 486 0.73 27,440 41.5
 Antioquia 5,974,788 37,628 0.60 312,112 5.22 5,625,048 94.1
 Arauca 239,503 6,573 2.70 10,058 4.19 222,872 93.0
 Atlántico 2,342,265 39,061 1.70 140,142 5.98 2,163,062 92.3
 Bogotá 7,181,469 19,063 0.30 66,934 0.93 7,095,472 98.8
 Bolívar 1,909,460 5,204 0.30 319,396 16.7 1,584,860 83.0
 Boyacá 1,135,698 7,151 0.60 4,247 0.37 1,124,300 98.9
 Caldas 923,472 55,801 6.00 14,716 1.59 852,955 92.3
 Caquetá 359,602 8,825 2.50 5,087 1.41 345,690 96.1
 Casanare 379,892 6,893 1.80 6,130 1.61 366,869 96.5
 Cauca 1,243,503 308,455 24.8 245,362 19.7 689,686 55.4
 Cesar 1,098,577 51,233 4.70 142,436 12.9 904,908 82.3
 Chocó 457,412 68,415 15.0 337,696 73.8 51,301 11.2
 Córdoba 1,555,596 202,621 13.0 102,495 6.58 1,250,480 80.4
 Cundinamarca 2,792,877 9,949 0.40 13,092 0.46 2,769,836 99.1
 Guainía 44,431 33,280 74.9 460 1.03 10,691 24.0
 Guaviare 73,081 6,856 9.40 2,991 4.09 63,234 86.5
 Huila 1,009,548 12,194 1.20 5,099 0.50 992,255 98.3
 La Guajira 825,365 394,683 47.8 60,475 7.32 370,207 44.8
 Magdalena 1,263,788 20,938 1.70 106,318 8.41 1,136,532 89.9
 Meta 919,129 20,528 2.20 8,836 0.96 889,765 96.8
 Nariño 1,335,521 206,455 15.5 233,062 17.45 896,004 67.1
 Norte de Santander 1,346,806 4,545 0.60 5,470 0.40 1,336,791 99.2
 Putumayo 283,197 50,694 17.9 10,262 3.62 222,241 78.4
 Quindío 509,640 2,883 0.60 6,060 1.18 500,697 98.2
 Risaralda 839,597 29,909 3.60 16,733 1.99 792,955 94.4
 San Andrés y Providencia 48,299 20 0.00 26,873 55.6 21,406 44.3
 Santander 2,008,841 1,262 0.10 22,759 1.13 1,984,820 98.8
 Sucre 864,036 104,890 12.1 102,836 11.9 656,310 75.9
 Tolima 1,228,763 45,269 3.70 5,207 0.42 1,178,287 95.8
 Valle del Cauca 3,789,874 30,844 0.80 647,526 17.0 3,111,504 82.1
 Vaupés 37,690 30,787 81.7 288 0.76 6,615 17.5
 Vichada 76,642 44,578 58.2 580 0.75 31,484 41.0

Social status of racial/ethnic minorities

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Since independence both Amerindians and blacks have continued to reside on the outskirts of national life. As a group, however, blacks have become more integrated into the national society and have left a greater mark on it for several reasons. Moreover, the blacks came from different areas of Africa, often did not share the same language or culture, and were not grouped into organized social units on arrival in the New World. Despite slave revolts, no large community of escaped slaves survived in isolation to preserve its African heritage, as did the maroons in Jamaica,[13] except for the village of Palenque de San Basilio, located southeast of Cartagena, which was one of the walled communities called 'palenques', founded by escaped slaves as a refuge in the seventeenth century. Of the many palenques that existed in former times, only the one of San Basilio has survived until the present day and developed into a unique cultural space.[14]

Finally, despite their position on the bottom rung of the social ladder, black slaves often had close relations—as domestic servants—with Spaniards and British and were therefore exposed to Spanish culture much more than were the Amerindians. Thus, blacks became a part of Colombian society from the beginning, adopting the ways of the Spanish that were permitted them and learning their language. By the end of the colonial period, the blacks thought of themselves as Colombians and felt superior to the Amerindians, who officially occupied higher status, were nominally free, and were closer in skin color, facial features, and hair texture to the emerging mestizo mix.[15]

Many blacks left slave status early in Colombian history, becoming part of the free population. Their owners awarded freedom to some, others purchased their liberty, but probably the greatest number achieved freedom by escape. Many slaves were liberated as a result of revolts, particularly in the Cauca valley and along the Caribbean coast. The elimination of slavery began with a free-birth law in 1821, but total emancipation was enacted only in 1851, becoming effective on January 1, 1852.[15]

Those blacks who achieved freedom sometimes moved into Amerindian communities, but blacks and zambos remained at the bottom of the social scale and were important only as a source of labor. Others founded their own settlements, mainly in unsettled lands of the Pacific basin where they were called cimarrones (maroons). Those regions were very unhealthy, inhospitable, and dangerous. Several towns, such as San Basilio de Palenque in the present department of Bolívar, and San José de Uré in southern Córdoba, kept the history of revolt alive in their oral traditions. In the Chocó area, along the Pacific, many of the black communities remained relatively unmixed, probably because there were few whites in the area, and the Amerindians became increasingly resistant to assimilation.[15]

In other regions, such as San Andrés y Providencia, or the Magdalena valley, black communities had considerable white and/or Amerindian admixture. Descendants of slaves have preserved relatively little of their African heritage or identification. Some placenames are derived from African languages, and some traditional musical instruments brought into the country by slaves are used throughout the country. Religion in the black communities remains the most durable link with the African past. Wholly black communities have been disappearing, not only because their residents have been moving to the cities but also because the surrounding mestizo and white populations have been moving into black communities. Eventual absorption into the mixed milieu appears inevitable. Moreover, as blacks have moved into the mainstream of society from its peripheries, they have perceived the advantages of better education and jobs. Rather than forming organizations to promote their advancement as a group, blacks have for the most part concentrated on achieving mobility through individual effort and adaptation to the prevailing system.[16]

Afro-Colombians are entitled to all constitutional rights and protections, but they continue to face significant economic and social discrimination. According to the 2005 census, an estimated 74 percent of Afro-Colombians earned less than the minimum wage. Chocó, the department with the highest percentage of Afro-Colombian residents, had the lowest level of social investment per capita and ranked last in terms of education, health, and infrastructure. It also continued to experience some of the country's worst political violence, as paramilitaries and guerrillas struggled for control of the department's key drug- and weapons-smuggling corridors.[16]

Media

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The television comedy Sábados Felices has been criticised for including a blackface character.[17][18]

Immigrants in Colombia

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Colombia has received across its history different groups of immigrants.

White Colombians are mainly of Spanish descent, who arrived in the beginning of the 16th century when Colombia was part of the Spanish Empire. During the 19th and 20th centuries, other European[19][20] and Middle Eastern[21] peoples migrated to Colombia, notably Italian[22][23] and Lebanese[24] people but also Irish,[25] Germans,[26][27] French,[28] Palestinians,[29] Syrians[30] among others.

Colombia was one of early focus of Basque and Sephardi immigration.[31] Between 1540 and 1559, 8.9% of the residents of Colombia were of Basque origin. Basque priests introduced handball into Colombia.[32] Jewish converts to Christianity and some crypto-Jews also sailed with the early conquistadors.[33]

Many immigrant communities have settled on the Caribbean coast, in particular recent immigrants from the Middle East. Barranquilla (the largest city of the Colombian Caribbean) and other Caribbean cities have the largest populations of Lebanese, Palestinian, and other Arabs.[34][35] In some sectors of society there is a considerable input of Italian and German ancestry.[36]

There are also important communities of Chinese, Japanese, Romanis and Jews.[37] British and Jamaicans migrated mainly to the islands of San Andres and Providencia.[33]

Since 2010 there is a major migration trend of Venezuelans, due to the political and economic situation in Venezuela.[38]

List of contemporary ethnic groups in Colombia

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Name Traditional Language Language Family Larger group Population (2018)[11]
Costeño (Caribbean Colombian) Spanish Indo-European (Romance) Hispanic Colombian 8,087,765
Cundiboyacense (including Bogotá) Spanish Indo-European (Romance) Hispanic Colombian 8,009,509
Paisa Spanish Indo-European (Romance) Hispanic Colombian 7,771,655
Santandereano Spanish Indo-European (Romance) Hispanic Colombian 3,321,611
Opita (Huilense) Spanish Indo-European (Romance) Hispanic Colombian 1,337,945
Chocoano Spanish Indo-European (Romance) Afro-Colombian 1,230,584
Tolimense Spanish Indo-European (Romance) Hispanic Colombian 1,178,287
Venezuelan Spanish Indo-European (Romance) Hispanic American 1,048,714
Afro-Costeño (Caribbean Colombian) Spanish Indo-European (Romance) Afro-Colombian 974,098
Wayuu Wayuunaiki Arawakan Indigenous 380,460
Zenú Zenú Zenú Indigenous 307,091
Nasa Nasa Yuwe Paezan Indigenous 243,176
Pasto Pasto Barbacoan Indigenous 163,873
Emberá Chamí Chamí Chocoan Indigenous 77,714
Emberá Cholo Chocoan Indigenous 56,504
Sikuani Sikuani Guahiban Indigenous 52,361
Pijao Pijao Cariban Indigenous 51,635
Emberá Katío Catío Chocoan Indigenous 48,117
Awá Awa Pit Barbacoan Indigenous 44,516
Mokaná Mocana Malibu Indigenous 37,099
Yanacona Yanacona Quechuan Indigenous 34,897
Arhuaco Ikʉ Chibchan Indigenous 34,711
Raizal Creole English Indo-European (Germanic) Afro-Colombian 25,515[12]
Misak Namtrik Barbacoan Indigenous 21,713
American (United States) English Indo-European (Germanic) Anglo American 20,140
Inga Inga Kichwa Quechuan Indigenous 19,561
Wiwa Wiwa Chibchan Indigenous 18,202
Coconuco Coconuco Barbacoan Indigenous 18,135
Kankuamo Kankui Chibchan Indigenous 16,986
Kogui Kogi Chibchan Indigenous 15,820
Wounan Wounan Chocoan Indigenous 14,825
Piapoco Piapoco Arawakan Indigenous 14,661
Witoto Witoto Witotoan Indigenous 14,142
Cubeo Cubeo Tucanoan Indigenous 14,074
Tikuna Ticuna Ticuna-Yuri Indigenous 13,842
Muruí Muruí Witotoan Indigenous 12,029
Baniwa Karu Arawakan Indigenous 11,946
Muisca Muysccubun Chibchan Indigenous 11,265
U'wa Uw Cuwa Chibchan Indigenous 10,649
German German Indo-European (Germanic) German Colombian 9,668
Puinave Puinave Puinave Indigenous 8,984
Totoró Totoró Barbacoan Indigenous 8,916
Kamëntsá Camsá Camsá Indigenous 7,521
Quillacinga Quillacinga Quillacinga Indigenous 7,333
Eperara Siapidara Eperara Chocoan Indigenous 7,047
Palenquero Palenquero Indo-European (Romance) Afro-Colombian 6,637[12]
Sáliva Sáliva Piaroa–Saliban Indigenous 4,783
Emberá Dobidá Dobidá Chocoan Indigenous 4,233
Tukano Tucano Tucanoan Indigenous 4,075
Kizgó Kizgó Barbacoan Indigenous 3,974
Quechua Kichwa Quechuan Indigenous 3,688
Desano Desano Tucanoan Indigenous 3,641
Yukpa Yukpa Cariban Indigenous 3,610
Mennonites Plautdietsch Indo-European (Germanic) German Colombian 3,402
Wanano Wanano Tucanoan Indigenous 3,312
Ambaló Namtrik Barbacoan Indigenous 3,278
Coreguaje Coreguaje Tucanoan Indigenous 3,257
Cocama Kokama Tupian Indigenous 3,221
Bari Bari Chibchan Indigenous 3,018
Guayabero Jiw Guahiban Indigenous 2,960
Rrom Romani Indo-European (Indo-Aryan) Romani 2,649[39]
Cuna Tule Dulegaya Chibchan Indigenous 2,610
Siona Siona Tucanoan Indigenous 2,599
Polindara Polindara Barbacoan Indigenous 2,499
Emberá Chamí (Cañamomo Lomaprieta) Chamí Chocoan Indigenous 2,225
Amorúa Amorúa Guahiban Indigenous 2,211
Muinane Muinane Bora–Witoto Indigenous 2,113
Makuna Makuna Tucanoan Indigenous 1,962
Kofán Cofán Cofán Indigenous 1,816
Macahuán Macahuán Guahiban Indigenous 1,764
Ette Ennaka Ette taara Chibchan Indigenous 1,701
Siriano Siriano Tupian Indigenous 1,658
Yukuna Yukuna Arawakan Indigenous 1,582
Tuyuca Tuyuca Tucanoan Indigenous 1,467
Piaroa Piaroa Piaroa–Saliban Indigenous 1,127
Piratapuyo Wanano Tucanoan Indigenous 1,106
Tatuyo Tatuyo Tucanoan Indigenous 1,091
Indigenous Ecuadorian (other than Otavaleño) Kichwa Quechuan Indigenous 1,088
Bora Bora Bora–Witoto Indigenous 1,047
Carapaná Carapaná Tucanoan Indigenous 1,040
Bara Waimajã Tucanoan Indigenous 1,004
Tanimuka Tanimuka Tucanoan Indigenous 991
Yagua Yagua Peba–Yaguan Indigenous 984
Achagua Achawa Arawakan Indigenous 980
Yurutí Yurutí Tucanoan Indigenous 969
Barasano Barasana Tucanoan Indigenous 905
Cuiba Cuiba Guahiban Indigenous 895
Andoke Andoke Bora–Witoto Indigenous 820
Kawiyarí Kawiyarí Arawakan Indigenous 809
Miraña Miraña Bora–Witoto Indigenous 759
Nukak Nukak Puinave-Maku Indigenous 744
Matapí Yucuna Arawakan Indigenous 618
Dujos Tama Tama Indigenous 611
Yeral (Tupi) Nheengatu Tupian Indigenous 565
Karijona Karijona Cariban Indigenous 525
Masiguare Masiguare Guahiban Indigenous 522
Hitnu Hitnu Guahiban Indigenous 513
Ocaína Ocaína Bora–Witoto Indigenous 412
Wipiwi Cuiba Guahiban Indigenous 299
Letuama Letuama Tucanoan Indigenous 285
Nonuya Nonuya Bora–Witoto Indigenous 258
Andaki Andaki Andaki Indigenous 248
Tariano Tariana Arawakan Indigenous 210
Otavaleño Kichwa Quechuan Indigenous 210
Guane Guane Chibchan Indigenous 200
Pisamira Pisamira Tucanoan Indigenous 196
Baniva Karu Arawakan Indigenous 187
Nutabe Nutabe Chibchan Indigenous 178
Indigenous Venezuelan Wayuunaiki Arawakan Indigenous 157
Kakua Kakua Kakua Indigenous 147
Tanigua Tanigua Tiniguan Indigenous 145
Yamalero Yamalero Guahiban Indigenous 142
Yaruro Yaruro Yaruro Indigenous 136
Betoye Betoye Betoye Indigenous 127
Taiwano Taiwano Tucanoan Indigenous 123
Yauna Yauna Tucanoan Indigenous 105
Mapayerri Mapayerri Mapayerri Indigenous 104
Calima Calima Calima Indigenous 102
Quimbaya Quimbaya Quimbaya Indigenous 94
Tsiripu Tsiripu Guahiban Indigenous 75
Mayan (Guatemalan) Kʼicheʼ Mayan Indigenous 65
Guariquema Guariquema Guariquema Indigenous 62
Panche Panche Cariban Indigenous 55
Makú Cacua Puinave-Maku Indigenous 50
Indigenous Peruvian Quechua Quechuan Indigenous 44
Tayrona Tayrona Chibchan Indigenous 43
Indigenous Brazilian Nheengatu Tupian Indigenous 36
Jupda Hup Nadahup Indigenous 33
Je'eruriwa Yucuna Arawakan Indigenous 29
Makaguaje Makaguaje Tucanoan Indigenous 24
Indigenous Bolivian Aymara Aymaran Indigenous 22
Chiricoa Chiricoa Guahiban Indigenous 19
Indigenous Panamanian Ngäbere Chibchan Indigenous 16
Guanaca Guanaca Guanaca Indigenous 14
Yarí Yarí Yarí Indigenous 14
Chitarero Chitarero Chitarero Indigenous 10
Indigenous Mexican Nahuatl Uto-Aztecan Indigenous 5
Juhup Hup Nadahup Indigenous 4
Hupdu Hup Nadahup Indigenous 1
Yuri-Carabayo Carabayo Ticuna-Yuri Indigenous No data

See also

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References

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  1. ^ "visibilización estadística de los grupos étnicos". Censo General 2018. Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadistica (DANE). Retrieved 10 February 2020.
  2. ^ a b c Rojas, Winston; Parra, María Victoria; Campo, Omer; Caro, María Antonieta; Lopera, Juan Guillermo; Arias, William; Duque, Constanza; Naranjo, Andrés; García, Jharley; Vergara, Candelaria; Lopera, Jaime; Hernandez, Erick; Valencia, Ana; Caicedo, Yuri; Cuartas, Mauricio; Gutiérrez, Javier; López, Sergio; Ruiz-Linares, Andrés; Bedoya, Gabriel (September 2010). "Genetic make up and structure of Colombian populations by means of uniparental and biparental DNA markers". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 143 (1): 13–20. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21270. PMID 20734436. Retrieved 13 February 2024.
  3. ^ "Raza/Etnia a la que pertenece". Latinobarómetro 2023 Colombia. Retrieved 13 February 2024.
  4. ^ "Grupos étnicos - Información técnica". Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadistica (DANE). Archived from the original on 2023-07-20. Retrieved 2021-10-24.
  5. ^ a b "Censo Nacional de Población y Vivienda 2018". Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadistica (DANE). Retrieved 2021-10-24.
  6. ^ "Raza/Etnia a la que pertenece". Latinobarómetro 2023 Colombia. Retrieved 13 February 2024.
  7. ^ "Censo general 2005". Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadistica (DANE). Retrieved 2021-10-24.
  8. ^ "Entidades Territoriales Indigenas", TIG: Territorio Indigena y Gobernanza (in Spanish), retrieved 2016-07-15
  9. ^ "Afrocolombianos, población con huellas de africanía" (PDF). Comunidades Negras, Afrocolombianas, Raizales y Palenqueras (in Spanish). Mincultura Gobierno de Colombia. Retrieved 2018-09-01.
  10. ^ Bushnell & Hudson, p. 88.
  11. ^ a b c DANE (September 16, 2019). "Población Indígena de Colombia" (PDF). DANE.
  12. ^ a b c d DANE. "Población negra, afrocolombiana, raizal y palenquera. Resultados del Censo Nacional de población y vivienda 2018" (PDF). DANE.
  13. ^ Bushnell & Hudson, pp. 88–89.
  14. ^ "The Cultural Space of Palenque de San Basilio". www.unesco.org. Retrieved 2016-05-24.
  15. ^ a b c Bushnell & Hudson, p. 89.
  16. ^ a b Bushnell & Hudson, p. 90.
  17. ^ "Translation – I'm not your Joke". Radio Ambulante. 24 April 2018.
  18. ^ "Twenty-First Century Blackface : Code Switch". NPR.
  19. ^ "Conozca a los inmigrantes europeos que se quedaron en Colombia". Revista Diners (in Spanish). 2020-07-02. Retrieved 2022-06-18.
  20. ^ Semana (2019-06-07). "Europeos en Santander: una historia de migraciones". Semana.com Últimas Noticias de Colombia y el Mundo (in Spanish). Retrieved 2022-06-17.
  21. ^ "Brazil-Arab News Agency – Colombia awakens to the Arab world". 2011-07-06. Archived from the original on 2011-07-06. Retrieved 2022-06-17.
  22. ^ Vidal Ortega, Antonino; D’Amato Castillo, Giuseppe (2015-12-01). "Los otros, sin patria: italianos en el litoral Caribe de Colombia a comienzos del siglo XX". Caravelle. Cahiers du monde hispanique et luso-brésilien (in French) (105): 153–175. doi:10.4000/caravelle.1822. ISSN 1147-6753.
  23. ^ "Convenzioni Inps estere, Fedi sollecita Nuova Zelanda ma anche Cile e Filippine". 2018-02-09. Archived from the original on 2018-02-09. Retrieved 2022-06-18.
  24. ^ "Apuntes sobre la inmigración sirio-libanesa en Colombia". www.nodo50.org. Retrieved 2022-06-17.
  25. ^ "News & Events – Irlandeses en Colombia y Antioquia – Department of Foreign Affairs". www.dfa.ie. Retrieved 2022-06-17.
  26. ^ "Estos fueron los primeros alemanes en Colombia". Revista Diners (in Spanish). 2019-06-10. Retrieved 2022-06-17.
  27. ^ Lozano, Juan Jacobo. "El alemán que impulsó el comercio y el desarrollo en Santander en el siglo XIX". www.radionacional.co. Retrieved 2022-06-17.
  28. ^ Salamanca, Helwar Figueroa; Espitia, Julián David Corredor (2019-07-31). ""En una ciudad gris y silenciosa": la migración francesa en Bogotá (1900–1920)". Anuario de Historia Regional y de las Fronteras (in Spanish). 24 (2): 75–100. doi:10.18273/revanu.v24n2-2019003. ISSN 2145-8499. S2CID 203515282.
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  31. ^ "'Lost Jews' Of Colombia Say They've Found Their Roots". NPR.org. Retrieved 25 November 2014.
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  39. ^ DANE. "Población gitana o rrom de Colombia. Resultados del Censo Nacional de población y vivienda 2018" (PDF). DANE.

Works cited

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