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Sanskrit inscriptions in the Malay world

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A good number of inscriptions written in Sanskrit language have been found in Malaysia and Indonesia (in Indonesian known as Prasasti). "Early inscriptions written in Indian languages and scripts abound in Southeast Asia. [...] The fact that southern Indian languages didn't travel eastwards along with the script further suggests that the main carriers of ideas from the southeast coast of India to the east - and the main users in Southeast Asia of religious texts written in Sanskrit and Pali - were Southeast Asians themselves. The spread of these north Indian sacred languages thus provides no specific evidence for any movements of South Asian individuals or groups to Southeast Asia.[1]

Notable inscriptions

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Kutai inscriptions

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Picture of one of the Kutai inscriptions at the National Museum in Jakarta

The oldest known inscriptions in Indonesia are the Kutai inscriptions, or the Muarakaman inscriptions, which are those on seven stone pillars, or yupa (“sacrificial posts”), found in the eastern part of Borneo, in the area of Kutai, East Kalimantan province. They are written in the early Pallava script, in the Sanskrit language, and commemorate sacrifices held by a king called Mulavarman. Based on palaeographical grounds, they have been dated to the second half of the 4th century AD. They attest to the emergence of an Indianized state in the Indonesian archipelago prior to AD 400, and hence Old Kutai Kingdom (Kutai Kuno) is the earliest known Indianized polity in Indonesia.

In addition to Mulavarman, the reigning king, the inscriptions mention the names of his father Asvavarman and his grandfather Kundungga. It is generally agreed that Kundungga is not a Sanskrit name, but one of native origin. The fact that his son Asvavarman is the first of the line to bear a Sanskrit name indicates that he was probably also the first to adhere to Hinduism.[2]

Tugu Inscription

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Tugu inscription in National Museum of Indonesia

The Tugu inscription is one several inscriptions associated to Tarumanagara, discovered in Batutumbuh hamlet, Tugu village, Koja, North Jakarta, in Indonesia. The inscription contains information about hydraulic projects; the irrigation and water drainage project of the Chandrabhaga river by the order of a certain Rajadirajaguru, and also the water project of the Gomati river by the order of King Purnawarman in the 22nd year of his reign. The digging project to straighten and widen the river was conducted in order to avoid flooding in the wet season, and as an irrigation project during the dry season.

The Tugu inscription was written in Pallava script arranged in the form of Sanskrit Sloka with Anustubh metrum, consisting of five lines that run around the surface of the stone. Just like other inscriptions from the Tarumanagara kingdom, the Tugu inscriptions do not mention the date of the edict. The date of the inscriptions was estimated and analyzed according to paleographic study which concluded that the inscriptions originated from the mid 5th century. The script of the Tugu inscription and the Cidanghyang inscription bear striking similarity, such as the script "citralaikha" written as "citralekha", leading to the assumption that the writer of these inscriptions was the same person.

The Tugu inscription is the longest Tarumanagara inscription pronounced by edict of Sri Maharaja Purnawarman. The inscription was made during the 22nd year of his reign, to commemorate the completion of the canals of the Gomati and Candrabhaga rivers. On the inscription there is an image of a staff crowned with Trisula straight to mark the separation between the beginning and the end of each sentence.

Kedah Inscription

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An inscription in Sanskrit dated 1086 has been found in Kedah. This was left by Kulothunga Chola I (of the Chola empire, Tamil country). This too shows the commercial contacts the Chola Empire had with Malaysia.[3]

Ligor Inscription

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An inscription was found in the Malay Peninsula in Southern Thailand, at Nakhon Si Thammarat. It has been dubbed the Ligor inscription, being the name given by Europeans to the region in the 16th and 17th centuries. It is written in Sanskrit[4] and bears the date of 775 AD.[5] One side of the inscription refers to the Illustrious Great Monarch (śrīmahārāja) belonging to the "Lord of the Mountain" dynasty (śailendravaṁśa), which is also mentioned in four Sanskrit inscriptions from Central Java; the other side refers to the founding of several Buddhist sanctuaries by a king of Srivijaya.[6] Srivijaya is the name of a kingdom whose centre was located in the modern city of Palembang in South Sumatra province, Indonesia. The Ligor inscription has been known in the list of inscription of Thailand as "Inscription No. 23 : Inscription of Wat Sema Mueang" which has been found at Wat Sema Mueang, Wiang Sak township, Mueang district of Nakhon Srithammarat in 1907 by Prince Damrongrachaniphab when he was Ministry of Interior during the annual inspection trip with the era recorded in the inscription as "Maha Sakkarat 697" (AD 775)[7] The Ligor inscription is testimony to an expansion of Sriwijaya power to the peninsula.[8]

List of Sanskrit inscriptions throughout the Southeast Asia archipelago

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Inscriptions Place of discovery Date Note
Võ Cạnh inscription Nha Trang, Vietnam 2nd-3rd century CE
Muarakaman inscriptions East Kalimantan, Indonesia ~ 400 CE Also known as Kutai inscriptions
Kebon Kopi I inscription Bogor, Indonesia ~ 400 CE Also known as Tapak Gajah inscriptions
Tugu inscription North Jakarta, Indonesia early 5th century CE
Cidanghiang inscription Pandeglang, Indonesia 5th century CE Also known as Lebak inscription
Ciaruteun inscription Bogor, Indonesia 5th century CE
Muara Cianten inscription Bogor, Indonesia 5th century CE
Jambu inscription Bogor, Indonesia 5th century CE
Pasir Awi inscription Bogor, Indonesia 5th century CE
Tukmas inscription Magelang, Indonesia 6th-7th century CE
Canggal inscription Magelang, Indonesia 732 CE Earliest mention of King Sanjaya
Plumpungan inscription Salatiga, Indonesia 760 CE
Ligor inscription Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand 775 CE
Kalasan inscription Sleman, Indonesia 778 CE
Kelurak inscription Klaten, Indonesia 782 CE
Karangtengah inscriptions Temanggung, Indonesia 824 CE Also known as Kayumwungan inscription
Tri Tepusan inscription Temanggung, Indonesia 842 CE
Munggu Antan inscription Purworejo, Indonesia 887 CE
Belanjong pillar Denpasar, Indonesia 913 CE
Sangguran Inscription Batu, Indonesia 928 CE Also known as Minto Stone
Pucangan inscription Mojokerto, Indonesia 1041 CE Also known as Calcutta Stone
Mula Malurung inscriptions Kediri, Indonesia 1255 CE
Gondang inscription Mojokerto, Indonesia 1275 CE
Padang Roco inscription Dharmasraya, Indonesia 1286 CE
Wurare Inscription Mojokerto, Indonesia 1289 CE
Pasir Panjang inscription Karimun, Indonesia 9-12th century CE
Singapore Stone Singapore 10-11th century CE Language unclear; either Sanskrit or Old Javanese
Akarendra inscription Tanah Datar, Indonesia 12th century CE
Manjusri inscription Malang, Indonesia 1343 CE
Amoghapasa inscription Dharmasraya, Indonesia 1347 CE
Pagaruyung III inscription Tanah Datar, Indonesia 1347 CE
Bukit Gombak inscription Tanah Datar, Indonesia 1357 CE
Pagaruyung VIII inscription Tanah Datar, Indonesia 1369 or 1316 CE
Suruaso I inscription Tanah Datar, Indonesia 1375 CE
Suruaso II inscription Batusangkar, Indonesia 14th century CE Also known as Batusangkar inscription
Kuburajo inscription Tanah Datar, Indonesia 14th century CE

See also

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Notes

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References

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  1. ^ Jan Wisseman Christie, "The Medieval Tamil-language Inscriptions in Southeast Asia and China", Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, Vol. 29, No. 02, September 1998, pp 239-268
  2. ^ S. Supomo, "Chapter 15. Indic Transformation: The Sanskritization of Jawa and the Javanization of the Bharata in Peter S. Bellwood, James J. Fox, Darrell T. Tryon (eds.), The Austronesians: Historical and Comparative Perspectives, Australian National University, 1995
  3. ^ Arokiaswamy, Celine W.M. (2000). Tamil Influences in Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines. Manila s.n. pp. 37, 38, & 41.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  4. ^ Niranjan Prasad Chakravarti and Bijan Raj Chatterjee, An Outline of Indo-Javanese History, Calcutta: Greater India Society, 1926
  5. ^ O. W. Wolters, “Tambralinga”, in Classical civilisations of South East Asia: an anthology of articles published in the Bulletin of SOAS (Vladimir Braginsky ed.), RoutledgeCurzon, 2002, 0-7007-1410-3, p. 588
  6. ^ Pierre-Yves Manguin, “Srivijaya, An Introduction”, Nalanda-Sriwijaya Centre, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2009
  7. ^ จารึกวัดเสมาเมือง (in Thai). Retrieved 19 May 2022.
  8. ^ Leonard Y. Andaya, Leaves of the same tree: trade and ethnicity in the Straits of Melaka, University of Hawaii Press, 2008, p. 149