List of human endocrine organs and actions

Hypothalamic-pituitary axis

Endocrine glands in the human head and neck and their hormones

Hypothalamus

Secreted hormone	Abbreviation	Produced by	Effect
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone	TRH	Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons	Stimulate thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) release from anterior pituitary (primarily)
Dopamine (Prolactin-inhibiting hormone)	DA or PIH	Dopamine neurons of the arcuate nucleus	Inhibit prolactin released from anterior pituitary
Growth hormone-releasing hormone	GHRH	Neuroendocrine neurons of the Arcuate nucleus	Stimulate Growth hormone (GH) release from anterior pituitary
Somatostatin (growth hormone-inhibiting hormone)	SS, GHIH, or SRIF	Neuroendocrine cells of the Periventricular nucleus	Inhibit Growth hormone release from anterior pituitary Inhibit thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) release from anterior pituitary
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone	GnRH or LHRH	Neuroendocrine cells of the Preoptic area	Stimulate follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) release from anterior pituitary Stimulate luteinizing hormone (LH) release from anterior pituitary
Corticotropin-releasing hormone	CRH or CRF	Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons of the Paraventricular nucleus	Stimulate adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) release from anterior pituitary
Oxytocin	OX or OXT	Magnocellular neurosecretory cells	In females: uterine contraction during birthing, lactation (letdown reflex) when nursing
Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone)	ADH or AVP or VP	Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons, Magnocellular neurosecretory neurons of the Paraventricular nucleus and Supraoptic nucleus	Increases water permeability in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct of nephrons, thus promoting water reabsorption and increasing blood volume

Pineal body (epiphysis)

Secreted hormone	From cells	Effect
Melatonin	Pinealocytes	Antioxidant Monitors the circadian rhythm including induction of drowsiness and lowering of the core body temperature

The pituitary gland (or hypophysis) is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing 0.5 grams (0.018 oz) in humans. It is a protrusion off the bottom of the hypothalamus at the base of the brain, and rests in a small, bony cavity (sella turcica) covered by a dural fold (diaphragma sellae). The pituitary is functionally connected to the hypothalamus by the median eminence via a small tube called the infundibular stem or pituitary stalk.^[1] The anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) is connected to the hypothalamus via the hypothalamo–hypophyseal portal vessels, which allows for quicker and more efficient communication between the hypothalamus and the pituitary.^[2]

Anterior pituitary lobe (adenohypophysis)

Secreted hormone	Abbreviation	From cells	Effect
Growth hormone (somatotropin)	GH	Somatotrophs	Stimulates growth and cell reproduction Stimulates Insulin-like growth factor 1 release from liver
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropin)	TSH	Thyrotropes	Stimulates thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) synthesis and release from thyroid gland Stimulates iodine absorption by thyroid gland
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (corticotropin)	ACTH	Corticotrophs	Stimulates corticosteroid (glucocorticoid and mineralcorticoid) and androgen synthesis and release from adrenocortical cells
Beta-endorphin	–	Corticotrophs	Inhibits perception of pain
Follicle-stimulating hormone	FSH	Gonadotrophs	In females: Stimulates maturation of ovarian follicles in ovary In males: Stimulates maturation of seminiferous tubules In males: Stimulates spermatogenesis In males: Stimulates production of androgen-binding protein from Sertoli cells of the testes
Luteinizing hormone	LH	Gonadotrophs	In females: Stimulates ovulation In females: Stimulates formation of corpus luteum In males: Stimulates testosterone synthesis from Leydig cells (interstitial cells)
Prolactin	PRL	Lactotrophs	Stimulates milk synthesis and release from mammary glands Mediates sexual gratification
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone	MSH	Melanotropes in the Pars intermedia of the Anterior Pituitary	Stimulates melanin synthesis and release from skin/hair melanocytes

Posterior pituitary lobe (neurohypophysis)

Stored hormone	Abbreviation	From cells	Effect
Oxytocin	OX or OXT	Magnocellular neurosecretory cells	In females: uterine contraction during birthing, lactation (letdown reflex) when nursing
Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone)	ADH or AVP	Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons	Increases water permeability in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct of nephrons, thus promoting water reabsorption and increasing blood volume

Oxytocin and anti-diuretic hormone are not secreted in the posterior lobe, merely stored.

Thyroid

Secreted hormone	Abbreviation	From cells	Effect
Triiodothyronine	T3	Thyroid epithelial cell	(More potent form of thyroid hormone) Stimulates body oxygen and energy consumption, thereby increasing the basal metabolic rate Stimulates RNA polymerase I and II, thereby promoting protein synthesis
Thyroxine (tetraiodothyronine)	T4	Thyroid epithelial cell's	(Less active form of thyroid hormone) (Acts as a prohormone to triiodothyronine) Stimulates body oxygen and energy consumption, thereby increasing the basal metabolic rate Stimulates RNA polymerase I and II, thereby promoting protein synthesis
Calcitonin		Parafollicular cell's	Stimulates osteoblasts and thus bone construction Inhibits Ca²⁺ release from bone, thereby reducing blood Ca²⁺

Digestive system

Stomach

Secreted hormone	Abbreviation	From cells	Effect
Gastrin (Primarily)		G cells	Secretion of gastric acid by parietal cells
Ghrelin		P/D1 cells	Stimulate appetite.
Neuropeptide Y	NPY		Increased food intake and decreased physical activity. It can be associated with obesity.
Somatostatin		D cells	Suppress release of gastrin, cholecystokinin (CCK), secretin, motilin, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP), enteroglucagon Lowers rate of gastric emptying Reduces smooth muscle contractions and blood flow within the intestine.^[3]
Histamine		ECL cells	stimulate gastric acid secretion
Endothelin		X cells	Smooth muscle contraction of stomach^[4]

Duodenum (small intestine)

Secreted hormone	From cells	Effect
Secretin	S cells	Secretion of bicarbonate from liver, pancreas and duodenal Brunner's glands Enhances effects of cholecystokinin, stops production of gastric juice
Cholecystokinin	I cells	Release of digestive enzymes from pancreas Release of bile from gallbladder, hunger suppressant

Liver

Secreted hormone	Abbreviation	From cells	Effect
Insulin-like growth factor (or somatomedin) (Primarily)	IGF	Hepatocytes	insulin-like effects regulate cell growth and development
Angiotensinogen and angiotensin		Hepatocytes	vasoconstriction release of aldosterone from adrenal cortex dipsogen.
Thrombopoietin	THPO	Hepatocytes	stimulates megakaryocytes to produce platelets^[5]
Hepcidin		Hepatocytes	inhibits intestinal iron absorption and iron release by macrophages

Pancreas

The pancreas is a heterocrine gland as it functions both as an endocrine and as an exocrine gland.^[6]

Secreted hormone	From cells	Effect
Insulin (Primarily)	β Islet cells	Intake of glucose, glycogenesis and glycolysis in liver and muscle from blood. Intake of lipids and synthesis of triglycerides in adipocytes. Other anabolic effects
Glucagon (Also Primarily)	α Islet cells	Glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in liver. Increases blood glucose level.
Somatostatin	δ Islet cells	Inhibit release of insulin^[7] Inhibit release of glucagon^[7] Suppress the exocrine secretory action of pancreas.
Pancreatic polypeptide	PP cells	Self regulate the pancreas secretion activities and effect the hepatic glycogen levels.

Kidney

Secreted hormone	From cells	Effect
Renin (Primarily)	Juxtaglomerular cells	Activates the renin–angiotensin system by producing angiotensin I of angiotensinogen
Erythropoietin (EPO)	Extraglomerular mesangial cells	Stimulate erythrocyte production
Calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₃)	Proximal tubule cells	Active form of vitamin D₃ Increase absorption of calcium and phosphate from gastrointestinal tract and kidneys inhibit release of PTH
Thrombopoietin		stimulates megakaryocytes to produce platelets^[5]

Adrenal glands

Adrenal cortex

Secreted hormone	From cells	Effect
Glucocorticoids (chiefly cortisol)	zona fasciculata and zona reticularis cells	Stimulates gluconeogenesis Stimulates fat breakdown in adipose tissue Inhibits protein synthesis Inhibits glucose uptake in muscle and adipose tissue Inhibits immunological responses (immunosuppressive) Inhibits inflammatory responses (anti-inflammatory)
Mineralocorticoids (chiefly aldosterone)	Zona glomerulosa cells	Stimulates active sodium reabsorption in kidneys Stimulates passive water reabsorption in kidneys, thus increasing blood volume and blood pressure Stimulates potassium and H⁺ secretion into nephron of kidney and subsequent excretion
Androgens (including DHEA and testosterone)	Zona fasciculata and Zona reticularis cells	In males: Relatively small effect compared to androgens from testes In females: masculinizing effects

Adrenal medulla

Secreted hormone	From cells	Effect
Adrenaline (epinephrine) (Primarily)	Chromaffin cells	Fight-or-flight response: Boost the supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles (by increasing heart rate and stroke volume, vasodilation, increasing catalysis of glycogen in liver, breakdown of lipids in fat cells) Dilate the pupils Suppress non-emergency bodily processes (e.g., digestion)
Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)	Chromaffin cells	Fight-or-flight response: Boost the supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles (by increasing heart rate and stroke volume, vasoconstriction and increased blood pressure, breakdown of lipids in fat cells) Increase skeletal muscle readiness.
Dopamine	Chromaffin cells	Increase heart rate and blood pressure
Enkephalin	Chromaffin cells	Regulate pain

Reproductive

Testes

Secreted hormone	From cells	Effect
Androgens (chiefly testosterone)	Leydig cells	Anabolic: growth of muscle mass and strength, increased bone density, growth and strength, Virilizing: maturation of sex organs, formation of scrotum, deepening of voice, growth of beard and axillary hair.
Estradiol	Sertoli cells	Prevent apoptosis of germ cells^[8]
Inhibin	Sertoli cells	Inhibit production of FSH

Ovarian follicle and corpus luteum

Secreted hormone	From cells	Effect
Progesterone	Granulosa cells, theca cells	Support pregnancy:^[9] Convert endometrium to secretory stage Make cervical mucus thick and impenetrable to sperm. Inhibit immune response, e.g., towards the human embryo Decrease uterine smooth muscle contractility^[9] Inhibit lactation Inhibit onset of labor. Other: Raise epidermal growth factor-1 levels Increase core temperature during ovulation^[10] Reduce spasm and relax smooth muscle (widen bronchi and regulate mucus) Anti-inflammatory Reduce gall-bladder activity^[11] Normalize blood clotting and vascular tone, zinc and copper levels, cell oxygen levels, and use of fat stores for energy Assist in thyroid function and bone growth by osteoblasts Increase resilience in bone, teeth, gums, joint, tendon, ligament, and skin Promote healing by regulating collagen Provide nerve function and healing by regulating myelin Prevent endometrial cancer by regulating effects of estrogen
Androstenedione	Theca cells	Substrate for estrogen
Estrogens (mainly estradiol)	Granulosa cells	Structural: Promote formation of female secondary sex characteristics Accelerate height growth Accelerate metabolism (burn fat) Reduce muscle mass Stimulate endometrial growth Increase uterine growth Maintain blood vessels and skin Reduce bone resorption, increase bone formation Protein synthesis: Increase hepatic production of binding proteins Coagulation: Increase circulating level of factors 2, 7, 9, 10, antithrombin III, plasminogen Increase platelet adhesiveness Increase HDL, triglyceride, height growth Decrease LDL, fat deposition Fluid balance: Regulate salt (sodium) and water retention Increase growth hormone Increase cortisol, SHBG Gastrointestinal tract: Reduce bowel motility Increase cholesterol in bile Melanin: Increase pheomelanin, reduce eumelanin Cancer: Support hormone-sensitive breast cancers^[12] (Suppression of production in the body of estrogen is a treatment for these cancers.) Lung function: Promote lung function by supporting alveoli.^[13]
Inhibin	Granulosa cells	Inhibit production of FSH from anterior pituitary

Placenta (when pregnant)

Secreted hormone	Abbreviation	From cells	Effect
Progesterone (Primarily)			Support pregnancy:^[9] Inhibit immune response, towards the fetus. Decrease uterine smooth muscle contractility^[9] Inhibit lactation Inhibit onset of labor. Support fetal production of adrenal mineralo- and glucosteroids. Other effects on mother similar to ovarian follicle-progesterone
Estrogens (mainly Estriol) (Also Primarily)			Effects on mother similar to ovarian follicle estrogen
Human chorionic gonadotropin	HCG	Syncytiotrophoblast	Promote maintenance of corpus luteum during beginning of pregnancy Inhibit immune response, towards the human embryo.
Human placental lactogen	HPL	Syncytiotrophoblast	Increase production of insulin and IGF-1 Increase insulin resistance and carbohydrate intolerance
Inhibin		Fetal Trophoblasts	Suppress FSH

Uterus (when pregnant)

Secreted hormone	Abbreviation	From cells	Effect
Prolactin	PRL	Decidual cells	milk production in mammary glands
Relaxin		Decidual cells	Unclear in humans and animals

Calcium regulation

Parathyroid

Secreted hormone	Abbreviation	From cells	Effect
Parathyroid hormone	PTH	Parathyroid chief cell	Calcium: Stimulates Ca²⁺ release from bone, thereby increasing blood Ca²⁺ Stimulates osteoclasts, thus breaking down bone Stimulates Ca²⁺ reabsorption in kidney Stimulates activated vitamin D production in kidney Phosphate: Stimulates PO³⁻₄ release from bones, thereby increasing blood PO³⁻₄. Inhibits PO³⁻₄ reabsorption in kidney, so more PO³⁻₄ is excreted Overall, small net drop in serum PO³⁻₄.

Skin

Secreted hormone	From cells	Effect
Cholecalciferol (vitamin D₃)	Keratinocytes	Cholecalciferol is an inactive form of vitamin D₃ Cholecalciferol is converted in the liver first to 25-hydroxycholecalciferol (calcifediol) then to 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol (calcitriol), which is the hormonally active metabolite of vitamin D. Calcitriol increases the level of calcium (Ca²⁺ ) in the blood by increasing the uptake of calcium from the gut into the blood, increasing reabsorption of calcium by the kidneys, and possibly increasing the release of calcium into the blood from bone.

Other

Heart

Secreted hormone	Abbreviation	From cells	Effect
Atrial natriuretic peptide	ANP	Cardiac myocytes	Reduce blood pressure by: reducing systemic vascular resistance, reducing blood water, sodium and fats
Brain natriuretic peptide	BNP	Cardiac myocytes	(To a lesser degree than ANP) reduce blood pressure by: reducing systemic vascular resistance, reducing blood water, sodium and fats

Bone

Secreted hormone	From cells	Effect
Osteocalcin	osteoblasts	stimulates beta cells to produce insulin

Skeletal muscle

In 1998, skeletal muscle was identified as an endocrine organ^[14] due to its now well-established role in the secretion of myokines.^[14]^[15] The use of the term myokine to describe cytokines and other peptides produced by muscle as signalling molecules was proposed in 2003.^[16]

Adipose tissue

Signalling molecules released by adipose tissue are referred to as adipokines.

Secreted hormone	From cells	Effect
Leptin (Primarily)	Adipocytes	decrease of appetite and increase of metabolism.
Adiponectin	Adipocytes	Reduces insulin resistance^[17]
Estrogens^[18] (mainly Estrone)	Adipocytes

References

^ Vander A (2008). Vander's Human Physiology: the mechanisms of body function. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. pp. 345–347. ISBN 978-0-07-304962-5.
^ Vander, Arthur (2008). Vander's Human Physiology: the mechanisms of body function. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. pp. 332–333.
^ Colorado State University – Biomedical Hypertextbooks – Somatostatin
^ Endo K, Matsumoto T, Kobayashi T, Kasuya Y, Kamata K (2005). "Diabetes-related changes in contractile responses of stomach fundus to endothelin-1 in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats". J Smooth Muscle Res. 41 (1): 35–47. doi:10.1540/jsmr.41.35. PMID 15855738.
^ ^a ^b Kaushansky K (May 2006). "Lineage-specific hematopoietic growth factors". N Engl J Med. 354 (19): 2034–45. doi:10.1056/NEJMra052706. PMID 16687716.
^ Molnar, Charles; Gair, Jane (14 May 2015). "Endocrine glands". opentextbc. Retrieved 16 September 2019.
^ ^a ^b Nosek, Thomas M. "Section 5/5ch4/s5ch4_17". Essentials of Human Physiology. Archived from the original on 2016-03-24.
^ Pentikäinen V, Erkkilä K, Suomalainen L, Parvinen M, Dunkel L (2000). "Estradiol acts as a germinal cell survival factor in the human testis in vitro". J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 85 (5): 2057–67. doi:10.1210/jcem.85.5.6600. PMID 10843196.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Bowen, R. (August 6, 2000) Placental Hormones. Colorado State University
^ Nosek, Thomas M. "Section 5/5ch9/s5ch9_13". Essentials of Human Physiology. Archived from the original on 2016-03-24.
^ Hould F, Fried G, Fazekas A, Tremblay S, Mersereau W (1988). "Progesterone receptors regulate gallbladder motility". J Surg Res. 45 (6): 505–12. doi:10.1016/0022-4804(88)90137-0. PMID 3184927.
^ Hormonal Therapy
^ Massaro D, Massaro GD (2004). "Estrogen regulates pulmonary alveolar formation, loss, and regeneration in mice". American Journal of Physiology. Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology. 287 (6): L1154–9. doi:10.1152/ajplung.00228.2004. PMID 15298854.
^ ^a ^b Pedersen BK, Febbraio MA (October 2008). "Muscle as an endocrine organ: focus on muscle-derived interleukin-6". Physiological Reviews. 88 (4): 1379–406. doi:10.1152/physrev.90100.2007. PMID 18923185.
^ Ostrowski K, Hermann C, Bangash A, Schjerling P, Nielsen JN, Pedersen BK (December 1998). "A trauma-like elevation of plasma cytokines in humans in response to treadmill running". The Journal of Physiology. 513 (3): 889–94. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7793.1998.889ba.x. PMC 2231318. PMID 9824725.
^ Pedersen BK, Steensberg A, Fischer C, et al. (2003). "Searching for the exercise factor: is IL-6 a candidate?". Journal of Muscle Research and Cell Motility. 24 (2–3): 113–9. doi:10.1023/A:1026070911202. PMID 14609022.
^ This article incorporates text available under the CC BY 4.0 license. Betts, J Gordon; Desaix, Peter; Johnson, Eddie; Johnson, Jody E; Korol, Oksana; Kruse, Dean; Poe, Brandon; Wise, James; Womble, Mark D; Young, Kelly A (July 27, 2023). Anatomy & Physiology. Houston: OpenStax CNX. 17.10 Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions. ISBN 978-1-947172-04-3.
^ Frühbeck G (July 2004). "The adipose tissue as a source of vasoactive factors". Curr Med Chem Cardiovasc Hematol Agents. 2 (3): 197–208. doi:10.2174/1568016043356255. PMID 15320786.

[:1-1] Vander A (2008). Vander's Human Physiology: the mechanisms of body function. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. pp. 345–347. ISBN 978-0-07-304962-5.

[:0-2] Vander, Arthur (2008). Vander's Human Physiology: the mechanisms of body function. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. pp. 332–333.

[Colorado-3] Colorado State University – Biomedical Hypertextbooks – Somatostatin

[4] Endo K, Matsumoto T, Kobayashi T, Kasuya Y, Kamata K (2005). "Diabetes-related changes in contractile responses of stomach fundus to endothelin-1 in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats". J Smooth Muscle Res. 41 (1): 35–47. doi:10.1540/jsmr.41.35. PMID 15855738.

[Kaushansky2006-5] Kaushansky K (May 2006). "Lineage-specific hematopoietic growth factors". N Engl J Med. 354 (19): 2034–45. doi:10.1056/NEJMra052706. PMID 16687716.

[6] Molnar, Charles; Gair, Jane (14 May 2015). "Endocrine glands". opentextbc. Retrieved 16 September 2019.

[GP5417-7] Nosek, Thomas M. "Section 5/5ch4/s5ch4_17". Essentials of Human Physiology. Archived from the original on 2016-03-24.

[8] Pentikäinen V, Erkkilä K, Suomalainen L, Parvinen M, Dunkel L (2000). "Estradiol acts as a germinal cell survival factor in the human testis in vitro". J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 85 (5): 2057–67. doi:10.1210/jcem.85.5.6600. PMID 10843196.

[colostate-9] Bowen, R. (August 6, 2000) Placental Hormones. Colorado State University

[GeorgiaPhysiology-10] Nosek, Thomas M. "Section 5/5ch9/s5ch9_13". Essentials of Human Physiology. Archived from the original on 2016-03-24.

[11] Hould F, Fried G, Fazekas A, Tremblay S, Mersereau W (1988). "Progesterone receptors regulate gallbladder motility". J Surg Res. 45 (6): 505–12. doi:10.1016/0022-4804(88)90137-0. PMID 3184927.

[12] Hormonal Therapy

[13] Massaro D, Massaro GD (2004). "Estrogen regulates pulmonary alveolar formation, loss, and regeneration in mice". American Journal of Physiology. Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology. 287 (6): L1154–9. doi:10.1152/ajplung.00228.2004. PMID 15298854.

[Pedersen_BK,_Febbraio_MA_1379–406-14] Pedersen BK, Febbraio MA (October 2008). "Muscle as an endocrine organ: focus on muscle-derived interleukin-6". Physiological Reviews. 88 (4): 1379–406. doi:10.1152/physrev.90100.2007. PMID 18923185.

[15] Ostrowski K, Hermann C, Bangash A, Schjerling P, Nielsen JN, Pedersen BK (December 1998). "A trauma-like elevation of plasma cytokines in humans in response to treadmill running". The Journal of Physiology. 513 (3): 889–94. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7793.1998.889ba.x. PMC 2231318. PMID 9824725.

[16] Pedersen BK, Steensberg A, Fischer C, et al. (2003). "Searching for the exercise factor: is IL-6 a candidate?". Journal of Muscle Research and Cell Motility. 24 (2–3): 113–9. doi:10.1023/A:1026070911202. PMID 14609022.

[Openstax_Anatomy_&_Physiology_attribution-17] This article incorporates text available under the CC BY 4.0 license. Betts, J Gordon; Desaix, Peter; Johnson, Eddie; Johnson, Jody E; Korol, Oksana; Kruse, Dean; Poe, Brandon; Wise, James; Womble, Mark D; Young, Kelly A (July 27, 2023). Anatomy & Physiology. Houston: OpenStax CNX. 17.10 Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions. ISBN 978-1-947172-04-3.

[18] Frühbeck G (July 2004). "The adipose tissue as a source of vasoactive factors". Curr Med Chem Cardiovasc Hematol Agents. 2 (3): 197–208. doi:10.2174/1568016043356255. PMID 15320786.

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