skip to main content
research-article

Scalable Game Design: A Strategy to Bring Systemic Computer Science Education to Schools through Game Design and Simulation Creation

Published: 30 April 2015 Publication History

Abstract

An educated citizenry that participates in and contributes to science technology engineering and mathematics innovation in the 21st century will require broad literacy and skills in computer science (CS). School systems will need to give increased attention to opportunities for students to engage in computational thinking and ways to promote a deeper understanding of how technologies and software are used as design tools. However, K-12 students in the United States are facing a broken pipeline for CS education. In response to this problem, we have developed the Scalable Game Design curriculum based on a strategy to integrate CS education into the regular school curriculum. This strategy includes opportunities for students to design and program games and science technology engineering and mathematics simulations. An approach called Computational Thinking Pattern Analysis has been developed to measure and correlate computational thinking skills relevant to game design and simulations. Results from a study with more than 10,000 students demonstrate rapid adoption of this curriculum by teachers from multiple disciplines, high student motivation, high levels of participation by women, and interest regardless of demographic background.

References

[1]
(PITAC). 2005. Report to the President: Computational Science: Ensuring America's Competitiveness.
[2]
(UCLA). Exploring Computer Science. 2011.
[3]
O. Astrachan and A. Briggs. 2012. The CS principles project. ACM Inroads, 3, 2, 38--42.
[4]
A. Basawapatna, K. H. Koh, A. Repenning, D. C. Webb, and K. S. Marshall. 2011. Recognizing computational thinking patterns. In Proceedings of the 42nd ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education. ACM, 245--250.
[5]
A. R. Basawapatna, A. Repenning, K. H. Koh, and H. Nickerson. 2013. The zones of proximal flow: Guiding students through a space of computational thinking skills and challenges. In Proceedings of the 9th Annual International ACM Conference on International Computing Education Research. ACM, 67--74.
[6]
T. C. Bell, I. H. Witten, and M. Fellows. 1998. Computer Science Unplugged: Off-line Activities and Games for All Ages. Computer Science Unplugged.
[7]
J. D. Bransford, A. L. Brown, and R. R. Cocking. 1999. How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School. National Academy Press.
[8]
M. Conway, S. Audia, T. Burnette, D. Cosgrove, and K. Christiansen. 2000. Alice: Lessons learned from building a 3D system for novices. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. ACM, 486--493.
[9]
P. Cope and T. Walsh. 1990. Programming in schools: 10 years on. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 6, 2, 119--127.
[10]
M. Csikszentmihalyi. 1997. Finding Flow in Everyday Life. BasicBooks, New York.
[11]
M. Csikszentmihalyi and K. Rathunde. 1993. The Measurement of Flow in Everyday Life: Towards a Theory of Emergent Motivation. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.
[12]
CSTA, NSF and ISTE. 2011. Operational Definition of Computational Thinking for K--12 Education. Computer Science Teaching Association, National Science Foundation, International Society for Technology in Education.
[13]
J. Cuny. 2012. Transforming high school computing: a call to action. ACM Inroads 3, 2, 32--36.
[14]
J. Cuny, L. Snyder, and J. M. Wing. 2010. Demystifying computational thinking for non-computer scientists. Unpublished manuscript in progress, referenced in https://www.cs.cmu.edu/∼CompThink/papers/TheLinkWing.pdf.
[15]
D. C. Edelson, D. N. Gordin, and R. D. Pea. 1999. Addressing the challenges of inquiry-based learning through technology and curriculum design. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 8, 3--4, 391--450.
[16]
J. Gal-Ezer and C. Stephenson. 2014. A tale of two countries: Successes and challenges in K-12 computer science education in Israel and the United States. ACM Transactions in Computer Education 14, 2, 8:1--8:18.
[17]
M. Garber. 2013. Ridiculously long men's room lines at tech conferences: A photo essay. The Atlantic.
[18]
S. Grover, R. Pea, and S. Cooper. 2014. Remedying misperceptions of computer science among middle school students. In Proceedings of the 45th ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education. ACM, 343--348.
[19]
K. D. Gutiérrez, J. D. Hunter, and A. Arzubiaga. 2009. Re-mediating the university: Learning through sociocritical literacies. Pedagogies: An International Journal 4, 1, 1--23.
[20]
K. Gutiérrez and L. Stone. 2002. Hypermediating Literacy Activity: How Learning Contexts Get Reorganized. Information Age Publishing, Greenwich, CT.
[21]
K. D. Gutierrez and B. Rogoff. 2003. Cultural ways of learning: Individual traits or repertoires of practice. Educational Researcher 32, 5, 19--25.
[22]
C. E. Hmelo, D. L. Holton, and J. L. Kolodner. 2000. Designing to learn about complex systems. The Journal of the Learning Sciences 9, 3, 247--298.
[23]
Peter Hubwieser, Michal Armoni, Torsten Brinda, Valentina Dagiene, Ira Diethelm, Michail N. Giannakos, Maria Knobelsdorf, Johannes Magenheim, Roland Mittermeir, and Sigrid Schubert. 2011. Computer science/informatics in secondary education. In Proceedings of the 16th Annual Conference Reports on Innovation and Technology in Computer Science Education-Working Group Reports. ACM, 19--38.
[24]
K. H. Koh, A. Basawapatna, V. Bennett, and A. Repenning. 2010. Towards the automatic recognition of computational thinking for adaptive visual language learning. In Proceedings of the IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages and Human-Centric Computing (VL/HCC’10). IEEE, 59--66.
[25]
K. H. Koh, A. Repenning, H. Nickerson, Y. Endo, and P. Motter. 2013. Will it stick?: Exploring the sustainability of computational thinking education through game design. In Proceedings of the 44th ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education. ACM, 597--602.
[26]
K. H. Koh, A. Basawapatna, H. Nickerson, and A. Repenning. 2014. Real time assessment of computational thinking. In Proceedings of the IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages and Human-Centric Computing (VL/HCC’14). IEEE, 49--52.
[27]
T. K. Landauer and S. T. Dumais. 1997. A solution to Plato's problem: The latent semantic analysis theory of acquisition, induction, and representation of knowledge. Psychological Review 104, 2, 211--240.
[28]
J. Margolis. 2008. Stuck in the Shallow End: Education, Race, and Computing. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
[29]
A. Michotte. 1962. The Perception of Causality. Methuen, Andover, MA.
[30]
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers. 2010. Common Core State Standards. Washington, DC: Authors.
[31]
S. Papert. 1980. Mindstorms: Children, Computers, and Powerful Ideas. Basic Books, New York.
[32]
S. Papert. 1993. The Children's Machine. Basic Books, New York.
[33]
S. Papert. 1996. An exploration in the space of mathematics educations. International Journal of Computers for Mathematical Learning 1, 1, 95--123.
[34]
R. Pea. 1983. LOGO Programming and problem solving. In Paper Presented at a Symposium of the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (AERA’83), “Chameleon in the Classroom: Developing Roles for Computers.”
[35]
J. Peckham, P. D. Stephenson, and L. L. Harlow. 2007. Broadening participation in computing: Issues and challenges. In Proceedings of the 12th Annual Conference on Innovation and Technology in Computer Science Education (ITiCSE’07). ACM.
[36]
R. W. Picard, S. Papert, W. Bender, et al. 2004. Affective learning—a manifesto. BT Technology Journal 22, 4, 253--269.
[37]
R. E. Ployhart and R. J. Vandenberg. 2010. Longitudinal research: The theory, design, and analysis of change. Journal of Management 36, 1, 94--120.
[38]
C. Quintana, B. J. Reiser, E. A. Davis, J. Krajcik, E. Fretz, R. G. Duncan, and E. Soloway. 2004. A scaffolding design framework for software to support science inquiry. Journal of the Learning Sciences 13, 3, 337--386.
[39]
B. J. Reiser. 2004. Scaffolding complex learning: The mechanisms of structuring and problematizing student work. Journal of the Learning Sciences 13, 3, 273--304.
[40]
A. Repenning. 2011. Making programming more conversational. In Proceedings of the IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages and Human-Centric Computing (VL/HCC). IEEE, 191--194.
[41]
A. Repenning. 2013. Making programming accessible and exciting. IEEE Computer 46, 6, 78--81.
[42]
A. Repenning and J. Ambach. 1996. Tactile programming: A unified manipulation paradigm supporting program comprehension, composition and sharing. In Proceedings of the IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages. IEEE, 102--109.
[43]
A. Repenning and A. Ioannidou. 1997. Behaviour processors: layers between end-users and Java virtual machines. In Proceedings of the IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages. IEEE, 402--409.
[44]
A. Repenning, A. Ioannidou, and J. Zola. 2000. AgentSheets: End-user programmable simulation. Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation, 3, 3.
[45]
A. Repenning, C. Smith, R. Owen, and N. Repenning. 2012. AgentCubes: Enabling 3D creativity by addressing cognitive and affective programming challenges. In Proceedings of the World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications 2012, 1, 2762--2771.
[46]
A. Repenning and T. Sumner. 1995. Agentsheets: A medium for creating domain-oriented visual languages. Computer 28, 3, 17--25.
[47]
M. Resnick, J. Maloney, A. Monroy-Hernández, N. Rusk, E. Eastmond, K. Brennan, and Y. Kafai. 2009. Scratch: programming for all. Communications of the ACM 52, 11, 60--67.
[48]
V. Richardson. 1998. How teachers change. Focus on Basics 2, C, 1--10.
[49]
C. Scaffidi and C. Chambers. 2012. Skill progression demonstrated by users in the Scratch animation environment. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction 28, 6, 383--398.
[50]
D. Seehorn, S. Carey, B. Fuschetto, I. Lee, D. Moix, D. O’Grady-Cuniff, B. Boucher Owens, C. Stephenson, and A. Verno. 2011. CSTA K-12 Computer Science Standards. CSTA Standards Task Force.
[51]
C. Stephenson and C. Wilson. 2012. Reforming K-12 computer science education… what will your story be? ACM Inroads 3, 2, 43--46.
[52]
L. S. Vygotsky. 1978. Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Harvard University Press.
[53]
D. C. Webb, A. Repenning, and K. H. Koh. 2012. Toward an emergent theory of broadening participation in computer science education. In Proceedings of the 43rd ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education. ACM, 173--178.
[54]
L. Werner, J. Denner, M. Bliesner, and P. Rex. 2009. Can middle-schoolers use Storytelling Alice to make games?: results of a pilot study. In Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Foundations of Digital Games. ACM, 207--214.
[55]
C. Wilson, L. A. Sudol, C. Stephenson, and M. Stehlik. 2010. Running on Empty: The Failure to Teach K-12 Computer Science in the Digital Age. Association for Computing Machinery. Computer Science Teachers Association.
[56]
J. M. Wing. 2006. Computational thinking. Communications of the ACM 49, 3, 33--35.

Cited By

View all
  • (2024)COMPUTER EDUCATION REFORM IN TAIWANNatural Science Education in a Comprehensive School (NSECS)10.48127/gu/24.30.1430:1(14-23)Online publication date: 28-Apr-2024
  • (2024)Designing Inclusive Computational Thinking Learning Trajectories for the Youngest LearnersEducation Sciences10.3390/educsci1407073314:7(733)Online publication date: 4-Jul-2024
  • (2024)Study Trends and Core Content Trends of Research on Enhancing Computational Thinking: An Incorporated Bibliometric and Content Analysis Based on the Scopus DatabaseComputers10.3390/computers1304009113:4(91)Online publication date: 3-Apr-2024
  • Show More Cited By

Index Terms

  1. Scalable Game Design: A Strategy to Bring Systemic Computer Science Education to Schools through Game Design and Simulation Creation

        Recommendations

        Comments

        Information & Contributors

        Information

        Published In

        cover image ACM Transactions on Computing Education
        ACM Transactions on Computing Education  Volume 15, Issue 2
        Special Issue II on Computer Science Education in K-12 Schools
        May 2015
        142 pages
        EISSN:1946-6226
        DOI:10.1145/2767124
        Issue’s Table of Contents
        Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for components of this work owned by others than ACM must be honored. Abstracting with credit is permitted. To copy otherwise, or republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. Request permissions from [email protected]

        Publisher

        Association for Computing Machinery

        New York, NY, United States

        Publication History

        Published: 30 April 2015
        Accepted: 01 November 2014
        Revised: 01 August 2014
        Received: 01 April 2013
        Published in TOCE Volume 15, Issue 2

        Permissions

        Request permissions for this article.

        Check for updates

        Author Tags

        1. Latent Semantic Analysis
        2. STEM
        3. elementary schools
        4. game design
        5. middle schools
        6. programming

        Qualifiers

        • Research-article
        • Research
        • Refereed

        Funding Sources

        Contributors

        Other Metrics

        Bibliometrics & Citations

        Bibliometrics

        Article Metrics

        • Downloads (Last 12 months)190
        • Downloads (Last 6 weeks)18
        Reflects downloads up to 24 Oct 2024

        Other Metrics

        Citations

        Cited By

        View all
        • (2024)COMPUTER EDUCATION REFORM IN TAIWANNatural Science Education in a Comprehensive School (NSECS)10.48127/gu/24.30.1430:1(14-23)Online publication date: 28-Apr-2024
        • (2024)Designing Inclusive Computational Thinking Learning Trajectories for the Youngest LearnersEducation Sciences10.3390/educsci1407073314:7(733)Online publication date: 4-Jul-2024
        • (2024)Study Trends and Core Content Trends of Research on Enhancing Computational Thinking: An Incorporated Bibliometric and Content Analysis Based on the Scopus DatabaseComputers10.3390/computers1304009113:4(91)Online publication date: 3-Apr-2024
        • (2024)Scaffolding Creative Programming ProjectsProceedings of the 19th WiPSCE Conference on Primary and Secondary Computing Education Research10.1145/3677619.3677634(1-6)Online publication date: 16-Sep-2024
        • (2024)RULER: Prebugging with Proxy-Based Programming2024 IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages and Human-Centric Computing (VL/HCC)10.1109/VL/HCC60511.2024.00037(275-281)Online publication date: 2-Sep-2024
        • (2024)Computational thinking for the digital age: a systematic review of tools, pedagogical strategies, and assessment practicesEducational technology research and development10.1007/s11423-024-10364-y72:4(1893-1924)Online publication date: 5-Apr-2024
        • (2024)An Integrative Review with Word Cloud Analysis of STEM EducationJournal of Science Education and Technology10.1007/s10956-024-10134-8Online publication date: 1-Jul-2024
        • (2024)Design-Based Digital Story Program: Enhancing Coding and Computational Thinking Skills in Early Childhood EducationEarly Childhood Education Journal10.1007/s10643-024-01728-3Online publication date: 23-Aug-2024
        • (2024)On the Predictors of Computational Thinking and Its Relationship with Artificial IntelligenceArtificial Intelligence for Supporting Human Cognition and Exploratory Learning in the Digital Age10.1007/978-3-031-66462-5_10(179-201)Online publication date: 9-Aug-2024
        • (2023)Application and Influence of Conditioned Reflex Theory in Interactive DeviceJournal of Education, Humanities and Social Sciences10.54097/ehss.v22i.1422522(810-816)Online publication date: 26-Nov-2023
        • Show More Cited By

        View Options

        Get Access

        Login options

        Full Access

        View options

        PDF

        View or Download as a PDF file.

        PDF

        eReader

        View online with eReader.

        eReader

        Media

        Figures

        Other

        Tables

        Share

        Share

        Share this Publication link

        Share on social media