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Review
. 2012 Jun;35(6):1364-79.
doi: 10.2337/dc12-0413. Epub 2012 Apr 19.

Management of hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes: a patient-centered approach: position statement of the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD)

Silvio E Inzucchi  1 , Richard M Bergenstal, John B Buse, Michaela Diamant, Ele Ferrannini, Michael Nauck, Anne L Peters, Apostolos Tsapas, Richard Wender, David R Matthews; American Diabetes Association (ADA); European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD)
Collaborators, Affiliations
Review

Management of hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes: a patient-centered approach: position statement of the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD)

Silvio E Inzucchi et al. Diabetes Care. 2012 Jun.

Erratum in

  • Diabetes Care. 2013 Feb;36(2):490
No abstract available

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Figures

Figure 1
Figure 1
Depiction of the elements of decision making used to determine appropriate efforts to achieve glycemic targets. Greater concerns about a particular domain are represented by increasing height of the ramp. Thus, characteristics/predicaments toward the left justify more stringent efforts to lower HbA1c, whereas those toward the right are compatible with less stringent efforts. Where possible, such decisions should be made in conjunction with the patient, reflecting his or her preferences, needs, and values. This “scale” is not designed to be applied rigidly but to be used as a broad construct to help guide clinical decisions. Adapted with permission from Ismail-Beigi et al. (20).
Figure 2
Figure 2
Antihyperglycemic therapy in type 2 diabetes: general recommendations. Moving from the top to the bottom of the figure, potential sequences of antihyperglycemic therapy. In most patients, begin with lifestyle changes; metformin monotherapy is added at, or soon after, diagnosis (unless there are explicit contraindications). If the HbA1c target is not achieved after ∼3 months, consider one of the five treatment options combined with metformin: a sulfonylurea, TZD, DPP-4 inhibitor, GLP-1 receptor agonist, or basal insulin. (The order in the chart is determined by historical introduction and route of administration and is not meant to denote any specific preference.) Choice is based on patient and drug characteristics, with the over-riding goal of improving glycemic control while minimizing side effects. Shared decision making with the patient may help in the selection of therapeutic options. The figure displays drugs commonly used both in the U.S. and/or Europe. Rapid-acting secretagogues (meglitinides) may be used in place of sulfonylureas. Other drugs not shown (α-glucosidase inhibitors, colesevelam, dopamine agonists, pramlintide) may be used where available in selected patients but have modest efficacy and/or limiting side effects. In patients intolerant of, or with contraindications for, metformin, select initial drug from other classes depicted and proceed accordingly. In this circumstance, while published trials are generally lacking, it is reasonable to consider three-drug combinations other than metformin. Insulin is likely to be more effective than most other agents as a third-line therapy, especially when HbA1c is very high (e.g., ≥9.0%). The therapeutic regimen should include some basal insulin before moving to more complex insulin strategies (Fig. 3). Dashed arrow line on the left-hand side of the figure denotes the option of a more rapid progression from a two-drug combination directly to multiple daily insulin doses, in those patients with severe hyperglycemia (e.g., HbA1c ≥10.0–12.0%). DPP-4-i, DPP-4 inhibitor; Fx's, bone fractures; GI, gastrointestinal; GLP-1-RA, GLP-1 receptor agonist; HF, heart failure; SU, sulfonylurea. aConsider beginning at this stage in patients with very high HbA1c (e.g., ≥9%). bConsider rapid-acting, nonsulfonylurea secretagogues (meglitinides) in patients with irregular meal schedules or who develop late postprandial hypoglycemia on sulfonylureas. cSee Table 1 for additional potential adverse effects and risks, under “Disadvantages.” dUsually a basal insulin (NPH, glargine, detemir) in combination with noninsulin agents. eCertain noninsulin agents may be continued with insulin (see text). Refer to Fig. 3 for details on regimens. Consider beginning at this stage if patient presents with severe hyperglycemia (≥16.7–19.4 mmol/L [≥300–350 mg/dL]; HbA1c ≥10.0–12.0%) with or without catabolic features (weight loss, ketosis, etc.).
Figure 3
Figure 3
Sequential insulin strategies in type 2 diabetes. Basal insulin alone is usually the optimal initial regimen, beginning at 0.1–0.2 units/kg body weight, depending on the degree of hyperglycemia. It is usually prescribed in conjunction with one to two noninsulin agents. In patients willing to take more than one injection and who have higher HbA1c levels (≥9.0%), twice-daily premixed insulin or a more advanced basal plus mealtime insulin regimen could also be considered (curved dashed arrow lines). When basal insulin has been titrated to an acceptable fasting glucose but HbA1c remains above target, consider proceeding to basal plus mealtime insulin, consisting of one to three injections of rapid-acting analogs (see text for details). A less studied alternative—progression from basal insulin to a twice-daily premixed insulin—could be also considered (straight dashed arrow line); if this is unsuccessful, move to basal plus mealtime insulin. The figure describes the number of injections required at each stage, together with the relative complexity and flexibility. Once a strategy is initiated, titration of the insulin dose is important, with dose adjustments made based on the prevailing glucose levels as reported by the patient. Noninsulin agents may be continued, although insulin secretagogues (sulfonylureas, meglitinides) are typically stopped once more complex regimens beyond basal insulin are utilized. Comprehensive education regarding self-monitoring of blood glucose, diet, exercise, and the avoidance of, and response to, hypoglycemia are critical in any patient on insulin therapy. Mod., moderate.
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