Skip to main content
Log in

Some like it “local”: A review of hierarchical processing in non-human animals

  • Invited Review
  • Published:
Learning & Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

When seeing a visual image, humans prioritize the perception of global features, which is followed by the assessment of the local ones. This global precedence has been investigated using hierarchical stimuli that consist of a large, global shape formed by the spatial arrangement of small local shapes. Comparing non-human animals to humans, research on global and local processing has revealed a heterogeneous pattern of results with some species exhibiting a local precedence and others a global one. Many factors have been proposed to influence the global and local processing: internal factors (e.g., age, sex) and external elements or perceptual field variables (e.g., stimulus size, visual angle, eccentricity, sparsity). In this review, studies showing that different non-human species process hierarchical stimuli in the same (global precedence) or reverse (local precedence) direction as humans are first collated. Different ecological, perceptual, and anatomical features that may influence global and local processing are subsequently proposed based on a detailed analysis of these studies. This information is likely to improve our understanding of the mechanisms behind the perceptual organization and visual processing, and could explain the observed differences in hierarchical processing between species.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adams, B., Chan, A., Callahan, H., & Milgram, N. W. (2000). The canine as a model of human cognitive aging: recent developments. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 24(5), 675–692.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Antes, J. R., & Mann, S. W. (1984). Gobal-local precedence in picture processing. Psychological Research, 46(3), 247–259.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Atkinson, J., Braddick, O., & Braddick, F. (1974). Acuity and contrast sensivity of infant vision. Nature, 247, 403–404.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Avargues-Weber, A., Dyer, A. G., Ferrah, N., & Giurfa, M. (2015). The forest or the trees: preference for global over local image processing is reversed by prior experience in honeybees. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 282(1799), 20142384.

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Basso, M. R., Schefft, B. K., Ris, M. D., & Dember, W. N. (1996). Mood and global-local visual processing. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 2(3), 249–255.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Behrmann, M., Thomas, C., & Humphreys, K. (2006). Seeing it differently: visual processing in autism. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10(6), 258–264.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, A. M., & Yamamoto, M. (1986). Visual acuity in newborn and preterm infants measured with grating acuity cards. American Journal of Ophthalmology, 102(2), 245–253.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burack, J. A., Enns, J. T., Iarocci, G., & Randolph, B. (2000). Age differences in visual search for compound patterns: Long-versus short-range grouping. Developmental Psychology, 36(6), 731.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cassia, V. M., Simion, F., Milani, I., & Umiltà, C. (2002). Dominance of global visual properties at birth. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 131(3), 398.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cavoto, K. K., & Cook, R. G. (2001). Cognitive precedence for local information in hierarchical stimulus processing by pigeons. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 27(1), 3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chiandetti, C., Pecchia, T., Patt, F., & Vallortigara, G. (2014). Visual hierarchical processing and lateralization of cognitive functions through domestic chicks’ eyes. PLoS One, 9(1), e84435.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Davidoff, J., Fonteneau, E., & Fagot, J. (2008). Local and global processing: Observations from a remote culture. Cognition, 108(3), 702–709.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Lillo, C., Spinozzi, G., Truppa, V., & Naylor, D. M. (2005). A comparative analysis of global and local processing of hierarchical visual stimuli in young children (Homo sapiens) and monkeys (Cebus apella). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 119(2), 155.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Lillo, C., Spinozzi, G., Palumbo, M., & Giustino, G. (2011). Attention allocation modulates the processing of hierarchical visual patterns: A comparative analysis of capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) and humans. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 37(3), 341.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deruelle, C., & Fagot, J. (1997). Hemispheric lateralisation and global precedence effects in the processing of visual stimuli by humans and baboons (Papio papio). Laterality: Asymmetries of Body, Brain and Cognition, 2(3–4), 233–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deruelle, C., & Fagot, J. (1998). Visual search for global/local stimulus features in humans and baboons. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 5(3), 476–481.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Douglas, R. H., & Hawryshyn, C. W. (1990). Behavioural studies of fish vision: an analysis of visual capabilities. In The visual system of fish (pp. 373–418). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands.

  • Enns, J. T., Burack, J. A., Iarocci, G., & Randolph, B. (2000). The orthogenetic principle in the perception of “forests” and “trees”? Journal of Adult Development, 7(1), 41–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, C. S., & Evans, L. (1999). Chicken food calls are functionally referential. Animal Behaviour, 58(2), 307–319.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fagot, J., & Deruelle, C. (1997). Processing of global and local visual information and hemispheric specialization in humans (Homo sapiens) and baboons (Papio papio). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 23(2), 429.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fagot, J., & Tomonaga, M. (1999). Global and local processing in humans (Homo sapiens) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): Use of a visual search task with compound stimuli. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 113(1), 3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feldman, J. (1999). The role of objects in perceptual grouping. Acta Psychologica, 102(2–3), 137–163.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Franceschini, S., Bertoni, S., Gianesini, T., Gori, S., & Facoetti, A. (2017). A different vision of dyslexia: Local precedence on global perception. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fremouw, T., Herbranson, W. T., & Shimp, C. P. (1998). Priming of attention to local or global levels of visual analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 24(3), 278.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fujita, K., & Matsuzawa, T. (1990). Delayed figure reconstruction by a chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) and humans (Homo sapiens). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 104(4), 345.

  • Goldstein, G., & Shelly, C. (1981). Does the right hemisphere age more rapidly than the left? Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 3(1), 65–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein-Marcusohn, Y., Goldfarb, L., & Shany, M. (2020). Global and Local Visual Processing in Rate/Accuracy Subtypes of Dyslexia. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 828.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Goto, K., Wills, A. J., & Lea, S. E. (2004). Global-feature classification can be acquired more rapidly than local-feature classification in both humans and pigeons. Animal Cognition, 7, 109–113.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gross, T. F. (2005). Global–local precedence in the perception of facial age and emotional expression by children with autism and other developmental disabilities. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35(6), 773–785.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hejjas, K., Vas, J., Kubinyi, E., Sasvari-Szekely, M., Miklosi, A., & Ronai, Z. (2007). Novel repeat polymorphisms of the dopaminergic neurotransmitter genes among dogs and wolves. Mammalian Genome, 18(12), 871–879.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hopkins, W. D. (1997). Hemispheric specialization for local and global processing of hierarchical visual stimuli in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Neuropsychologia, 35(3), 343–348.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hopkins, W. D., & Washburn, D. A. (2002). Matching visual stimuli on the basis of global and local features by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Animal Cognition, 5(1), 27–31.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, H. C., Nozawa, G., & Kitterle, F. (1996). Global precedence, spatial frequency channels, and the statistics of natural images. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 8(3), 197–230.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kamil, A. C., & Cheng, K. (2001). Way-finding and landmarks: the multiple-bearings hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Biology, 204(1), 103–113.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kimchi, R. (1990). Children’s perceptual organisation of hierarchical visual patterns. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 2(2), 133–149.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kimchi, R. (1992). Primacy of wholistic processing and global/local paradigm: a critical review. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kimchi, R., Hadad, B., Behrmann, M., & Palmer, S. E. (2005). Microgenesis and ontogenesis of perceptual organization: Evidence from global and local processing of hierarchical patterns. Psychological Science, 16(4), 282–290.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kinchla, R. A., & Wolfe, J. M. (1979). The order of visual processing:“Top-down”,“bottom-up”, or “middle-out.” Perception & Psychophysics, 25(3), 225–231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kramer, J. H., Ellenberg, L., Leonard, J., & Share, L. J. (1996). Developmental sex differences in global-local perceptual bias. Neuropsychology, 10(3), 402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lomber, S. G. (2002). Learning to see the trees before the forest: reversible deactivation of the superior colliculus during learning of local and global visual features. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99(6), 4049–4054.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luna, D. (1993). Effects of exposure duration and eccentricity of global and local information on processing dominance. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 5(2), 183–200.

  • Lux, S., Marshall, J. C., Thimm, M., & Fink, G. R. (2008). Differential processing of hierarchical visual stimuli in young and older healthy adults: Implications for pathology. Cortex, 44(1), 21–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marful, A., Paolieri, D., & Bernal, A. (2021). Sex, menstrual cycle, and hormonal contraceptives influences on global–local processing. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 134, 105430.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, M. (1979). Local and global processing: The role of sparsity. Memory & Cognition, 7(6), 476–484.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mena, M. B. (1992). Can certain stimulus characteristics influence the hemispheric differences in global and local processing? Acta Psychologica, 79(3), 201–217.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Millán, Á. S., Iglesias, J., Gutkin, A., & Olivares, E. I. (2021). Forest before trees: Letter stimulus and sex modulate global precedence in visual perception. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 899.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mottron, L., Burack, J. A., Iarocci, G., Belleville, S., & Enns, J. T. (2003). Locally oriented perception with intact global processing among adolescents with high-functioning autism: evidence from multiple paradigms. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44(6), 904–913.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Msetfi, R. M., Murphy, R. A., Simpson, J., & Kornbrot, D. E. (2005). Depressive realism and outcome density bias in contingency judgments: the effect of the context and intertrial interval. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 134(1), 10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, M. S., Brooks, D. I., & Cook, R. G. (2015). Pigeons use high spatial frequencies when memorizing pictures. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Learning and Cognition, 41(3), 277.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nakamura, E. L. (1968). Visual acuity of two tunas, Katsuwonus pelamis and Euthynnus affinis. Copeia, 1, 41–49.

  • Navon, D. (1977). Forest before trees: The precedence of global features in visual perception. Cognitive Psychology, 9(3), 353–383.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neiworth, J. J., Gleichman, A. J., Olinick, A. S., & Lamp, K. E. (2006). Global and local processing in adult humans (Homo sapiens), 5-year-old children (Homo sapiens), and adult cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 120(4), 323.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Northmore, D. P. M., & Dvorak, C. A. (1979). Contrast sensitivity and acuity of the goldfish. Vision Research, 19(3), 255–261.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oken, B. S., Kishiyama, S. S., Kaye, J. A., & Jones, D. E. (1999). Age-related differences in global-local processing: stability of laterality differences but disproportionate impairment in global processing. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 12(2), 76–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Palumbo, M., Spinozzi, G., Truppa, V., & De Lillo, C. (2023). Spatial frequency and global–local visual processing in capuchin monkeys (Sapajus spp.) and humans (Homo sapiens). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 137(1), 16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Penzlin, V. H., & Stubbe, M. (1977). Studies on the visual acuity in the goldfish. Zoologische Jahrbucher: Abteilung für Algemeine Zoologie und Physiologie Der Tiere, 81, 310–326.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pitteri, E., Mongillo, P., Carnier, P., & Marinelli, L. (2014). Hierarchical stimulus processing by dogs (Canis familiaris). Animal Cognition, 17(4), 869–877.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Plaisted, K., Swettenham, J., & Rees, L. (1999). Children with autism show local precedence in a divided attention task and global precedence in a selective attention task. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 40(5), 733–742.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Quinlan, P. T., & Wilton, R. N. (1998). Grouping by proximity or similarity? Competition between the Gestalt principles in vision. Perception, 27(4), 417–430.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rawlings, D., & Claridge, G. (1984). Schizotypy and hemisphere function—III: Performance asymmetries on tasks of letter recognition and local-global processing. Personality and Individual Differences, 5(6), 657–663.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rezvani, Z., Katanforoush, A., & Pouretemad, H. (2020). Global precedence changes by environment: A systematic review and meta-analysis on effect of perceptual field variables on global-local visual processing. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 82(5), 2348–2359.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roalf, D., Lowery, N., & Turetsky, B. I. (2006). Behavioral and physiological findings of gender differences in global-local visual processing. Brain and Cognition, 60(1), 32–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robertson, L. C., Lamb, M. R., & Knight, R. T. (1988). Effects of lesions of temporal-parietal junction on perceptual and attentional processing in humans. Journal of Neuroscience, 8(10), 3757–3769.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Santacà, M., Miletto Petrazzini, M. E., Dadda, M., & Agrillo, C. (2020). Forest before the trees in the aquatic world: global and local processing in teleost fishes. PeerJ, 8, e9871.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sasaki, Y., Hadjikhani, N., Fischl, B., Liu, A. K., Marret, S., Dale, A. M., & Tootell, R. B. (2001). Local and global attention are mapped retinotopically in human occipital cortex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 98(4), 2077–2082.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scherf, K. S., Behrmann, M., Kimchi, R., & Luna, B. (2009). Emergence of global shape processing continues through adolescence. Child Development, 80(1), 162–177.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shulman, G. L., Sullivan, M. A., Gish, K., & Sakoda, W. J. (1986). The role of spatial-frequency channels in the perception of local and global structure. Perception, 15(3), 259–273.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Slavin, M. J., Mattingley, J. B., Bradshaw, J. L., & Storey, E. (2002). Local–global processing in Alzheimer’s disease: an examination of interference, inhibition and priming. Neuropsychologia, 40(8), 1173–1186.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Song, Y., & Hakoda, Y. (2012). The interference of local over global information processing in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder of the inattentive type. Brain and Development, 34(4), 308–317.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spence, R., Fatema, M. K., Reichard, M., Huq, K. A., Wahab, M. A., Ahmed, Z. F., & Smith, C. (2006). The distribution and habitat preferences of the zebrafish in Bangladesh. Journal of Fish Biology, 69(5), 1435–1448.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spinozzi, G., De Lillo, C., & Truppa, V. (2003). Global and local processing of hierarchical visual stimuli in tufted capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 117(1), 15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spinozzi, G., De Lillo, C., & Salvi, V. (2006). Local advantage in the visual processing of hierarchical stimuli following manipulations of stimulus size and element numerosity in monkeys (Cebus apella). Behavioural Brain Research, 166(1), 45–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, M., & Merilaita, S. (2009). Defining disruptive coloration and distinguishing its functions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364(1516), 481–488.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tanaka, H. K., & Fujita, I. (2000). Global and local processing of visual patterns in macaque monkeys. Neuroreport, 11(13), 2881–2884.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thornton, A., & Lukas, D. (2012). Individual variation in cognitive performance: developmental and evolutionary perspectives. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 367(1603), 2773–2783.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Treisman, A., & Paterson, R. (1984). Emergent features, attention, and object perception. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 10(1), 12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Troscianko, T., Benton, C. P., Lovell, P. G., Tolhurst, D. J., & Pizlo, Z. (2009). Camouflage and visual perception. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364(1516), 449–461.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Troup, L. J. (1995). Towards the Development of a Model of Vision [Doctoral dissertation, University of Plymouth]. https://doi.org/10.24382/1339

  • Truppa, V., De Simone, D. A., & De Lillo, C. (2016). Short-term memory effects on visual global/local processing in tufted capuchin monkeys (Sapajus spp.). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 130(2), 162.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Truppa, V., Carducci, P., De Simone, D. A., Bisazza, A., & De Lillo, C. (2017). Global/local processing of hierarchical visual stimuli in a conflict–choice task by capuchin monkeys (Sapajus spp.). Animal Cognition, 20, 347–357.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Truppa, V., Sovrano, V. A., Spinozzi, G., & Bisazza, A. (2010). Processing of visual hierarchical stimuli by fish (Xenotoca eiseni). Behavioural Brain Research, 207(1), 51–60.

  • Van Kleeck, M. H., & Kosslyn, S. M. (1989). Gestalt laws of perceptual organization in an embedded figures task: Evidence for hemispheric specialization. Neuropsychologia, 27(9), 1179–1186.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vander Wall, S. B. (1982). An experimental analysis of cache recovery in Clark’s nutcracker. Animal Behaviour, 30(1), 84–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wagemans, J., Elder, J. H., Kubovy, M., Palmer, S. E., Peterson, M. A., Singh, M., & von der Heydt, R. (2012). A century of Gestalt psychology in visual perception: I. Perceptual grouping and figure–ground organization. Psychological Bulletin, 138(6), 1172.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wan, M., Yang, Y., Liu, Y., & Li, J. (2016). Do multicultural experiences facilitate global processing style? Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 19(3), 209–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weintraub, M., Segal, R. M., & Beck, A. T. (1974). An investigation of cognition and affect in the depressive experiences of normal men. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42(6), 911.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yamanouchi, T. (1956). The visual acuity of the coral fish Microcanthus strigatus (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Publications of the Seto Marine Biological Laboratory, 5(2), 133–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yovel, I., Revelle, W., & Mineka, S. (2005). Who sees trees before forest? The obsessive-compulsive style of visual attention. Psychological Science, 16(2), 123–129.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

I thank Christian Agrillo for his precious comments on a previous version of the review.

Funding

 This research was funded by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF) [ESP 433-B].

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Maria Santacà.

Ethics declarations

Conflicts of interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.

Ethics approval

Not applicable.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Open Practices Statement

No data or materials were used in the preparation of the article and as such none can be made available.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Santacà, M. Some like it “local”: A review of hierarchical processing in non-human animals. Learn Behav 52, 143–161 (2024). https://doi.org/10.3758/s13420-023-00605-0

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.3758/s13420-023-00605-0

Keywords

Navigation