Geji

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Gējì or Geji (Chinese: 歌妓、歌伎、歌姬)^[1][2] were female Chinese performing artists and courtesans who trained in singing and dancing in ancient China.^{[3][4][5]: 119} Like other entertainers in ancient China, Gejis had a low social status. They were professional entertainers who sometimes engaged in sexual activity with clients.^[6] Geji made certain contributions to ancient Chinese music, dance, poetry, painting and other arts and literature. Some Tang poetry and Song dynasty lyric poetry was also sung by geji. The geji would perform the poems as songs, which played a role in the dissemination of the ancient Chinese poems and lyrics.^[7][8]

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In ancient China, women who were engaged in sing and dance were called Geji. They were also called “Music Ji or Yue Ji(乐妓)”,^[9] “Vocal Ji or Sheng Ji(声妓)”,^[10] “Song and dance Ji (歌舞妓)”,^[11] and “Ge'er (歌儿)”.^[12] The "Ou (讴)" in "OuZhe (讴者)" means sing, and "OuZhe (讴者)" means "the person who sings".^[13] Among ancient Chinese sing and dance performers, women who are good at dance are called Wuji (舞妓),^[14] also known as “Wuji (舞姬)”^[15] or “Wuji (舞伎)”, dancing girls (舞女), means women who have been specially trained to perform sing and dance.^[16] Female musicians (女乐) refer to the female singers and dancers who served the ruling class in ancient China, and are also known as “Song and dance Ji (歌舞妓)”.^[17][18]In ancient China, famous Geji and prostitutes were called "MingJi (名妓)", "MingJi" can be understood as famous courtesans and prostitutes. "MingJi" in Geji refers to famous Geji (歌妓) and Wuji (舞妓), not famous Chang Ji (娼妓).^[19]“Jī(姬)” was an aristocratic surname in early ancient China and could be used to describe aristocratic women and princesses. Later, this word was used to express the honorific title for women. "Gējī(歌姬)" and "Wǔjī(舞姬)" are more respectful terms for female performers of song and dance.^[20][21]During the Ming Dynasty, courtesans were labelled according to their specialization, and those who specialized in song were called Gējì.^[22]

Music Ji (乐妓) refers specifically to female music performers, while Music Ji (乐伎) can refer to both male and female music performers. Jiyue (伎乐) is the music produced by playing musical instruments, which includes both musical instruments and performers.^[23]The profession of a Geji is to perform song and dance, not to engage in sex work. Although sex workers (known as “Chang Ji (娼妓)”) could also perform song and dance, that was not their main profession. For example, the prostitutes in Pingkangfang (平康坊) red light district in the Tang dynasty and the Changsan (长三) prostitutes in the late Qing dynasty and Republic of China were high-class prostitutes.^[24][25] Geji is not Guanren (倌人), Guanren refers to the name for prostitutes in the Wu language area in the old days. Geji does not refer to Qing guanren (清倌人), Qing guanren started prostitution after menstruation and became a prostitute.^[26] Geji are not Shoumas (瘦马). Shoumas are young women who were specially trained to be concubines of wealthy businessmen during the Ming and Qing dynasties in China. They did not take acting as a profession. Some of the remaining Shoumas had to be sold as prostitutes, such as "YangBang (扬帮)" prostitutes are mostly from Shouma backgrounds.^[27] Geji are women who engaged in song and dance performances in ancient China, while Shouma (瘦马) are women who are specially trained to be sold as concubines. The concepts of the two are different.^[28]

The modern term "Yiji (艺妓)" is not used in ancient Chinese sources. The word "Yiji" in Chinese may have first appeared in "Qing Bai Lei Chao (清稗类钞)" by Xu Ke (徐珂), a late Qing dynasty writer, and it refers to a prostitute with some talent. Xu Ke called the high-level prostitute "Mabanzi (马班子)" is Yiji, who were high-class prostitutes engaged in prostitution.^[29][30] Wang Xiyan (王西彦), a writer in the Republic of China, also used the word Yiji in his novel “The Ancient House (古屋)” to describe hetaira of ancient Greece.^[31] In modern Chinese, the word Yiji refers to a woman who makes a living by singing and dancing. The corresponding use of the word Yiji (藝妓) may be seen in the alias of Yidan (藝旦) during the Japanese occupation period in Taiwan.^[32] In "Rage in Coal City (煤城怒火)", writer Xiang Chun (向春) called Japanese geishas "Yiji".^[33] In modern Chinese, the word Yiji no longer refers to prostitutes with some talent, but to women who make a living by singing and dancing. Generally, Japanese geisha (芸妓) is called Yiji (艺妓).^[34]In addition, women who make a living by singing and dancing in ancient societies of other countries are also called Yiji in Chinese.^[35]

Song and dance in ancient China have a long history, and in primitive religious worship, songs and dances are also used in religious ceremonies. Women who performed songs and dances in religious ceremonies may have been the predecessors of future generations of Geji (歌妓) and Wuji (舞妓). Nuo dance (傩舞) is the oldest existing primitive dance in China. Nuo dance has a long history. There are records of Nuo sacrifices in the oracle bone inscriptions of the Yin (殷) Ruins, and there are also explicit records of Nuo dance in "The Rites of Zhou (周礼)". Its origins are related to primitive hunting, totem worship, etc., and gradually evolved into a seasonal ritual with fixed purpose and content. It was followed from the Qin and Han dynasties to the Tang and Song dynasties and continued to develop. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, although the ancient meaning of Nuo dance still existed, it had developed into an entertainment custom and developed into opera.^[36]

During the Xia, there were already Geji and Wuji (舞妓), Jie (桀) raised female musicians (女乐), also known as female singers and dancers. Jie (桀) was a monarch in the late Xia dynasty who had thirty thousand female musicians in his court. These female musicians started practicing early in the morning, sounds can be heard outside the palace.^[37] During the Shang dynasty (商朝), music and dance performances focused on entertainment began to be performed in the court of the monarch King Zhou (纣王). King Zhou had entertainers perform entertaining songs and dances in the court to entertain himself.^[38] During the Spring and Autumn Period, Duke Mu of Qin (秦穆公) wanted to get Youyu (由余), the counselor of King Rong (戎王). He listened to the advice of Wang Liao (王寥), the internal historian, and sent sixteen Geji and dancing girls to King Rong. The king of Rong held a banquet and had fun with the female musicians. Youyu persuaded the Rong King, but the Rong King did not listen to the advice. Youyu defected to the Qin State, assisted Qin Mu Gong, annexed twelve countries, and expanded the land thousands of miles away. Han Fei commented: "Indulging in female music and disregarding national politics can lead to the disaster of national subjugation".^[39]

During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period in China, music and dance were further removed from the scope of religious sacrifices. In the second year after King Yan Zhao (燕昭王) came to the throne, Guangyan State (广延国) presented two female dancers, one named Xuanjuan (旋娟) and the other named Timo (提谟). The two of them performed three dances: "Yangchen (萦尘)", "Jiyu (集羽)", and "Xuanhuai (旋怀)", and they have extremely high dance attainments.^[40] At the end of the Warring States Period, Mochou (莫愁), a woman from the Chu State (楚国), entered the palace as a Geji and brought folk songs and dances into the palace. King Qingxiang of Chu (楚顷襄王) extensively collected folk songs and sang them to music,^[41] and also sent special personnel to compose music and train musicians. In addition to performing songs and dances, Mochou (莫愁) also incorporated ancient tunes, Chu Ci (楚辞), Qu Yuan's Li Sao (屈原的离骚), and Songyu's Fengfu (宋玉的风赋) into the songs for singing. Mochou (莫愁) sang "Yangchun Baixue (阳春白雪)", as well as "Xiali Baren (下里巴人)", "A Yang (阿阳)", "Xie Lu (薤露)", "Plucking Wei Song (采薇歌)" and "Maixiu Song (麦秀歌)", etc. Mochou (莫愁) had a certain influence on the singing of "The Songs of Chu (楚辞)" combined with songs, and also had a profound influence on the singing of music and Fu combined with songs in later generations.^[42] After Qin Shi Huang unified the six kingdoms, he brought many Geji from the past six kingdoms into the Qin court. These Geji from the Six Kingdoms performed music in the Qin court, and also became part of Qin Shihuang's harem.^[43][44]

Liu Bang, the founder and first emperor of the Han dynasty, was a supporter of popular entertainment including folk songs and dances. He was the first to introduce Chu (楚国) music and dance, which originated from ethnic shamanism, into the palace as forms of court music and dance. Therefore, the court music and dance of the Han dynasty were secular feasts with a hedonistic mood, and the Wujis (舞妓) who were good at singing and dancing became the objects of appreciation.^[45] During the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty, the Yuefu (乐府) was established, and the government paid closer attention to music. Some of them managed ritual music and military music, while others managed secular music, that is, they went to the folk to learn and collect music, and wrote lyrics and tunes based on the collection results. Yuefu also arranges musical instruments for singing and playing. During the Han dynasty, there were many Geji in the imperial palaces and aristocratic mansions, used for performances at banquets, entertaining monarchs, nobles, ministers, etc. In the cities of the Han dynasty, there were singing and dancing places where Geji used to perform. The upper classes such as nobles, officials and the merchant class enjoyed music and entertainment in such houses.^[46] In the Han dynasty, there were families of performers who were engaged in music and dance as a profession, that is Changjia (倡家). Some families were composed of parents and children, with brothers and sisters all taking music and dance as a profession. Some Changjias (倡家) of the Han dynasty also performed in singing and dancing venues.^[46][47] In the Han dynasty, an important part of the emperor's daily entertainment was banquets. In folk banquets, banquets are a bond of interpersonal communication and a symbol of etiquette. The most common entertainment during the banquet is singing and dancing, but there are also acrobatics and rap performances. In addition to professional actors performing songs and dances at the banquet, the host and guests of the banquet also need to sing and dance impromptu. Typically the host dances first and the guests dance in return.^[48]

During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern dynasties (魏晋南北朝), the practice of cultivating Geji was prevalent. During this period, Geji played the most obvious role as nobles in displaying their wealth. Nobles competed for singing girls from time to time. Stories about Geji are recorded in "Shishuoxinyu (世说新语)". Zhao Yun (朝云), a Geji in the Northern Wei dynasty (北魏), was good at playing the Chi (篪chí, a flute-like instrument), and could perform "Tuan Shan Song (团扇歌)" and "Long Shang Shen (陇上声)". Volume 4 (卷四) of Yang Xuanzhi (杨衒之)'s "Luoyang Jialan Ji (洛阳伽蓝记)" in the Northern dynasties records that the Geji Zhaoyun's music can move the rebellious Qiang (羌) in Longshang (陇上) to "come back and surrender", and the music she plays is more powerful than the "quick horse runners".^[49] During the Three Kingdoms period (三国时期), Caocao (曹操) also raised Geji. The sing and dance Jis (歌舞妓) in Caocao's family were called Tongque Jis (铜雀妓).^[50] Caocao had a singing girl who sang well but had a bad temper. Although Caocao was angry, he was afraid that if he killed her, he would not be able to hear such sweet singing. Later, Caocao trained a hundred Geji until one of them sang as well as the bad-tempered Geji, so he killed her. There were also many Geji in the palace. The popular palace poetry in the Southern dynasties was for the Geji in the palace to sing to entertain the monarchs and nobles. During the Northern Wei dynasty, Luoyang (洛阳), as the capital at that time, had a gathering area for music and dance artists. It is said in "Jiyang Jialan Ji (济阳伽蓝记)" that Luoyang, the capital city, is divided into tune and rhythm, and there are many singing and dancing artists. As the political center and people of the Han nationality (汉族) migrated southward, female music and dance from the north were also brought to the south of the Yangtze River, so the songs and dances in the south of the Yangtze River were also very popular. The most famous one is the "Qianxi Dance (前溪舞)" spread in Qianxi Village (前溪村), an area where artists gather. Qianxi Village in Huzhou, according to historical records, was once a gathering place for music and dance artists in the Southern dynasties. During the Tang dynasty, there were many places to learn music and dance performances here. Jiangnan's music and dance performances were once famous, and most of the music and dance artists came from Qianxi Village.^[51][52][53]

The performances of the "Seven-part Music" and "Nine-part Music" of the Sui Dynasty generally have three forms: "songs", "dance music" and "interpretation music". "Songs" are those with both sound and words, "dance music" is the music that goes with the dance, and "interpretation music" may be instrumental music with sound but no words, and is generally faster. "Seven-part Music" and "Nine-part Music" belong to the court music of the Sui Dynasty, and Geji also participated in the performances together with male musicians.^[54]

During the Tang Dynasty, Geji were courtesans who were talented in the performing arts and often poetry.^[5]: 119 The literati of the Tang Dynasty were known to visit courtesan houses for inspiration for their writing.^[5]: 123

During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (五代十国时期), the south was relatively stable, and there were Geji both inside and outside the palace. Bashu, a remote area in the southwest, was relatively stable. During the former and later Shu periods, Chengdu's shops were prosperous, and singing, dancing and entertainment were very popular. The emerging popular music form, the word (词), was favored. Mrs. Huarui (花蕊夫人) once wrote more than 100 "Palace Cis (宫词)" describing life in the palace. These verses vividly record the grand music and dance scene in Chengdu during the Five Dynasties period. These poems describe a complete set of music and dance performances in the palace, from learning, rehearsal to performance. In order to make the performance successful, Liyuan Zidis (梨园子弟) and the Geji studied and rehearsed every day. In the performance of team dance during the Five Dynasties, the "dance head" is equivalent to the "bamboo pole" in the team dance of the Song dynasty. Among the team dances during the reign of King Yan of the former Shu dynasty, the Red Lotus Picking Team Dance is very famous. The stage setting for the Red Lotus Picking Team Dance is extremely luxurious, and there are 220 women singing and performing. In the early years of the Northern Song dynasty, Zhang Yong (张咏)'s "Poems in Mourning for Shu" described Chengdu during the Later Shu period: "The shadows of candles are sinking like stars, and the songs are falling with the moon." Lu You (陆游) records that during the Shu period, there were many folk musicians in Chongzhou alone. There is a saying of "three thousand official willows and four thousand pipa"."Han Xizai's Night Banquet (韩熙载夜宴图)" is a painting by Gu Hongzhong (顾闳中), a painter of the Southern Tang dynasty during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. It depicts the scene of the official Han Xizai (韩熙载) having a night banquet at his home, singing and having fun. In the painting, there are scenes of Li Ji (李姬), Wang Wushan (王屋山) and other Geji performing. In the painting "Listening to Music", there is a painting of the Jiaofang (教坊) Geji Li Ji (李姬) sitting alone with her pipa in her arms. Because of her superb playing skills, everyone present was attracted to pay attention and listen attentively. In the picture "Watching the Dance", the emotions of the people at the party reached a climax at this time, and they put down their official pretentiousness to participate in the entertainment. Han Xizai took off his outer robe and rolled up his sleeves, held a mallet and accompanied his family's Wuji (舞妓) Wang Wushan in the "Six Yao Dance (六幺舞)" with his disciple Shu Ya (舒雅).^[55][56]

During the Song dynasty, many scholars trained Geji, or interacted with Geji and exchanged poems and songs, which also affected literary creation and the spread of poetry. Liu E (刘娥) once was a Geji who was good at beating the drum and singing drum lyrics. She was good at playing the drum and singing while playing it, and her singing voice was beautiful.^[57] The Wanyue Ci (婉约词) in the Song dynasty had a close relationship with Geji. The Wanyue Ci (婉约词) in the early Northern Song dynasty was written for Geji to sing, and their contents were mostly about love affairs between men and women, boudoir love, etc. Zhang Xian (张先), Yan Shu (晏殊), Liu Yong (柳永) and other poets have many poems about Geji. Liu Yong (柳永) often had contact with Geji and often wrote lyrics for Geji and musicians. He also often composed new songs himself and then wrote lyrics for Geji to sing. His official career was not smooth, so he had special feelings for the Geji who were also in the lower class of society, and maintained a harmonious relationship with them.^[58] At that time, the Geji liked to talk about poetry and songs with Liu Yong (柳永). After Liu Yong (柳永)'s death, Hangzhou Geji Xie Yuying (谢玉英), Zhao Xiangxiang (赵香香) and Chen Shishi (陈师师) paid for Liu Yong's burial with other Geji.^[59] Every year during the Qingming Festival (清明节), Geji go to Liu Yong's tomb to pay homage, which is called "Diao Liu Qi (吊柳七)" or "Diao Liu Hui (吊柳会)".^[60] Liu Yong has many poems about Geji, such as "Xi Chunlang (惜春郎)", "Feng Title Cup (凤衔杯)", etc. The content includes describing the Geji's life, describing the Geji's appearance and talents, and expressing his love for the Geji. The Geji mentioned by Liu Yong in "Collection of Movements (乐章集)" include Chongniang (虫娘), Yingying (英英), Xinniang (心娘), Suniang (酥娘), etc. Yan Shu (晏殊) is a poet of the Song dynasty, wrote part of his poems about separation and sorrow, which were written in response to the needs of the Geji. Yan Shu's son Yan Jidao (晏几道) had deep sympathy for those smart but unfortunate Geji, which was revealed in his lyrics. In addition to the poets of Wanyue Ci (婉约词) ,who Haofang Ci (豪放词) poet Su Shi (苏轼) also had contacts with Geji.^[61] When he left Hangzhou for Mizhou, when passing through Suzhou, there were Geji guarding Changmen when he left the city and held a farewell banquet for him. Su Shi wrote "Drunk and Desolate·Farewell at Suzhou Changmen (醉落魄·苏州阊门留别)" was given to her. Su Shi's concubine Wang Chaoyun (王朝云) was also a Geji, and the Geji Qin Cao (琴操) also had a friendship with Su Shi.^[62][63]

Qin Guan (秦观), a scholar from the Su Men (苏门学士), also had close contacts with Geji. Su Shi's good friend Chen Zhen (陈慥) had many Geji, which made his wife Liushi (柳氏) dissatisfied. Liushi even reprimanded Chen Zhen loudly in front of her guests, which made Chen Zhen very afraid of his wife. This incident is also the origin of the idiom "Hedong Lion's Roar (河东狮吼)".^[64] Song dynasty poet Xin Qiji (辛弃疾) also dated Geji, he likes to watch singing and dancing performances of Geji. Xin Qiji also wrote about Geji in his works.^[65] Li Shishi (李师师) is a Geji in the late Northern Song dynasty, was very famous for her good lyrics, music and singing skills. Zhou Bangyan (周邦彦) also had contact with her and wrote lyrics for Li Shishi. In addition to Li Shishi, Zhou Bangyan also had contact with the Geji Yue Chuyun (岳楚云). After the Southern Song dynasty, lyrics gradually became "elegant (雅化)". There were fewer lyrics describing Geji, and many of them were no longer suitable for singing by Geji. However, some poets at that time still wrote lyrics for Geji. Geji in the Song dynasty were good at singing "small singing (小唱)" and "piao singing (嘌唱)". Small singing belongs to elegant singing, such as "slow music" and "qupo". The Geji sing and dance, and they themselves beat the rhythm with their hands or clappers, while the musicians next to them accompany them with bamboo flutes, dragon flutes, and shengs. Geji should sing elegant tunes, with "soft and beautiful voices", slow rhythm and preciseness. Meng Yuanlao of the Northern Song dynasty recorded that the Geji who were good at singing include Li Shishi, Xu Poxi (徐婆惜), Feng Yinu (封宜奴), and Sun Sansi (孙三四). Among them, Li Shishi was the best, represented by "Youth Tour (少年游)", "Lanling King (兰陵王)", "Da Mo (大酩)", " "Six Ugly (六丑)". There were more famous singers among the Geji in the Southern Song dynasty. "Mengliang Lu (梦粱录)" mentioned Jin Sailan (金赛兰), Fan Duyi (范都宜), Tang An'an (唐安安), Ni Duxi (倪都惜) and so on. Piao singing (嘌唱) is a popular singing method, singing songs, singing tunes, and singing small orders. The Geji use drums to accompany them, playing fast and complex strings, lively and indulgent.^[66]

The song and dance songs of the Tang dynasty developed into team dance performances in the Song dynasty. According to the "Song Book·Yue Zhi (宋书·乐志)", the court dances in the Song dynasty included the "Children's Dance Team" and the "Female Disciple Team". The female disciples (女弟子) mentioned here refer to the female artists who studied song, dance and drama. "Yun Gongfeng Zhenyin Manlu (郧公式峰真隐漫录)" by Shi Hao (史浩) of the Song dynasty records in detail the performances of the "Lotus Picking Dance (采莲舞)", "Taiqing Dance (太清舞)", "Zhezhi Dance (柘枝舞)", "Flower Dance (花舞)", "Sword Dance (剑舞)" and "Fisherman Dance (渔父舞)" in the Song dynasty.^[55] The book "Complete Song Ci (全宋词)" contains poetry works by 23 Geji.^[67]

During the Yuan dynasty (元朝), various professions were divided into ten levels. Geji or female performer，male entertainer and sex worker were all classified as "Chang (倡)" in the eighth level. Some of the actresses who performed in Zaju (杂剧) in the Yuan dynasty were themselves Geji from Jiaofang (教坊). In addition, many Geji will sing Sanqu (散曲) in gelou (歌楼) and banquet to entertain them. "Qinglou Ji (青楼集)" by Xia Tingzhi (夏庭芝) of the Yuan dynasty and "Chuogeng Lu (辍耕录)" by Tao Zongyi (陶宗仪) recorded the life details and deeds of some Geji. In addition to performing dramas and singing Sanqu (散曲), Geji also sang Xiwens (戏文), slow lyrics (慢词), and Zhugong Diaos (诸宫调). Famous Geji in the Yuan dynasty include Liang Yuanxiu (梁园秀), Shunshi Xiu (顺时秀), Zhulianxiu (珠帘秀), Tianranxiu (天然秀), etc. They also made good friends with literati. Some Geji who performed in dramas also established deep friendships with Yuan opera writers (元曲作家), such as Zhulianxiu (珠帘秀) and Guan Hanqing (关汉卿), Tianranxiu (天然秀) and Bai Renfu (白仁甫), etc. "Qinglou Ji (青楼集)" records the deeds of Geji, performers and other people in Dadu, Jinling, Weiyang, Wuchang, Shandong, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Huguang and other places in the Yuan dynasty. Each of these Geji had different artistic attainments, which recorded their talents in Zaju (杂剧), Yuanben (院本), Piaochang (嘌唱), Zhugong Diao (诸宫调), dance, and instrumental music. In particular, there are detailed records of the expertise of some Zaju (杂剧) actors. At the same time, it also records Geji entertainment and interactions with some dignitaries, literary talents, and writers of opera or prose at that time.^[68] Tao Zongyi's "Yeting Ji of the YuanShi (元氏掖庭记)" writes that the famous banquets in the palace, as well as the banquets "named after the events", are all inseparable from the singing, dancing and drinking of the palace Geji. A court music and dance of the Yuan dynasty, the Sixteen Heavenly Demon Dance (十六天魔舞)was created in the 14th year of the reign of Emperor Shun of the Yuan dynasty (元顺帝). The dancers are sixteen court Wujis (舞妓) and Geji (歌妓). When they are in the palace praising Buddha, they dance and play music.^[69][70]

During the Ming dynasty, courtesans were defined by their specialization, with those who specialized in singing being labelled as Geji.^[22] The Hongwu Emperor ordered the construction of a number of establishments for drinking and feasting, some of which would regularly employ their own Geji full time to attract customers and business. Literati frequented these establishments and some even wrote poetry inspired by their experienced there. ^[71] Zhu Houzhao (朱厚照), The Zhengde Emperor of the Ming dynasty, went on many tours^{[clarification needed]}, and the local government provided him with Geji to serve him. Zhu Houzhao's concubine Liu Liangnü (刘良女) had been a Geji.^[72][73] In the middle of the Ming dynasty, the trend of scholar-bureaucrats looking for singing girls became more and more popular. There were also Geji in Lingnan, such as Zhang Qiao (张乔), who was close to the Nanyuan Poetry Society (南园诗社).^[74][75] During the Ming dynasty the female poet Xu Yuan often socialized with Geji and wrote a number of poems praising their physical beauty.^[76]

In the late Ming dynasty, Geji gathered in parts of the Qinhuai River. It became popular in the late Ming dynasty for young talents to take advantage of the opportunity to travel to Nanjing to participate in the provincial examination and associate with the Geji. Scholars of letters took exams, and some celebrated success with Geji, or were comforted by Geji after failing the exams. In the late Ming dynasty, due to the disrepair of imperial regulations and other reasons, the literati class generally lacked confidence in governing the country. Members of the Fushe (复社), represented by Maoxiang (冒襄), Fang Yizhi (方以智), and Chen Liang (陈梁), could only laugh and curse in the Qinhuai Gelou (歌楼). Way to express inner resentment to the eunuch group. Geji come from poor backgrounds, and only through the acquisition of art can they win the favor of the literati class and bring considerable economic benefits. At the same time, Geji participated extensively in artistic creation, making artistic taste more refined and catering to the spiritual needs of the literati class.^[77][78] Among the Geji in the late Ming dynasty, Chen Yuanyuan, Dong Xiaowan, Gu Hengbo, Li Xiangjun, Liu Rushi, Ma Shouzhen, Bian Yujing, and Kou Baimen were called “Eight Beauties of Qinhuai”. “Eight Beauties of Qinhuai” are excellent female artists, and they all showed national integrity and patriotism at a time when the country was surviving or changing dynasties.^[79][80] Other notable Ming Geji include the painter Lin Xue and the poets Wang Wei and Yang Wan etc.

The Geji culture continued in the Qing dynasty, and some Geji from the late Ming dynasty continued to perform singing and dancing as Geji in the Qing dynasty. The Geji at the turn of the Ming and Qing dynasties included Dong'er (冬儿), Lang Yuan (郎圆), etc. During the Qing dynasty, the Geji Lang Yuan (郎圆) performed the famous Tang dynasty dance "Zhe Zhi (柘枝)" at noble family banquet and was praised.^[81] During the Qing dynasty, Geji were hired to perform at gatherings of nobles, wealthy businessmen, and literati as entertainment activities. At the Twenty-Four Bridge (二十四桥) in Yangzhou, Geji gather here and perform performing arts here. Literati and wealthy businessmen would go to the Twenty-Four Bridge to watch the performances of Geji. The literati would recite poems here and the Geji would also participate in the cultural activities of the literati.^{[82][83][84][85]} The playwright Li Yu (李渔) formed his own family theater troupe. The main actresses in Li Yu's theater troupe, Qiao Ji (乔姬) and Wang Ji (王姬), were both former Geji. These two outstanding actresses joined Li Yu's opera troupe at the age of 13 and transformed from singers into opera actors.^[86] Geji during the Qing dynasty still paid attention to art. In the early Qing dynasty, Yangzhou Geji Chen Susu (陈素素) was good at writing poems, painting and singing. She also wrote a collection of poems.^[87] In the Xiao Qinhuai River area (小秦淮河地区) of Yangzhou, Geji,other type female performers and prostitutes gather here. During the Qianlong (乾隆) period, Geji still had a high artistic level in performing arts. For example, in the Xiao Qinhuai Record (小秦淮记) in "Yangzhou Painting Boat Record (扬州画舫录)", the Geji Su Yin (苏殷) is good at painting, can shoot arrows and hits three times with three shots. As the adopted daughter of a musician, Geji Zhenzhu Niang (珍珠娘) is good at singing. Geji Xu Yanyun (徐砚云) is good at playing the flute and telling humorous stories. Everyone present laughed happily every time she told a story. She also liked to wear men's clothes and ride horses, so people at the time called her "Flying Fairy (飞仙)". The Wuji (舞妓) Zhu Niang (珠娘) was good at dancing and boxing. She also incorporated martial arts skills into her dance. She became so famous that Qian Mei'an (钱梅庵) painted "Zhu Niang's Boxing Style (珠娘拳式图)" for her. Geji Yang Xiaobao (杨小宝) is good at singing Kunqu opera and ditties, and is known as the Qutan, Zhuangyuan (曲坛状元). The Zhuangyuan (状元) in Suzhou, Qian Xiangling (钱湘舲), went south to Yangzhou to listen to songs and was deeply impressed by the talent of Yangzhou Geji. From them, three people were selected as the "Zhuangyuan (状元)", "Bangyan (榜眼)" and "Tanhua (探花)", namely Yang Xiaobao (杨小宝), Gu Xiaoyu (顾霞娱) and Yang Gaosan (杨高三), all of whom were at that time leader in Yangzhou music scene. Yang Xiaobao's (杨小宝) tunes and rhythms are as famous as those of her contemporary composer Zhu Yedong (朱野东). She was a leader in the Yangzhou music scene at that time and was called in the music world and an "unparalleled woman (无双女)".^[88] When Qianlong (乾隆) visited the south, the local government provided him with local Geji or actress. Qianlong's requirements were very high, and he would not accept any Geji who he thought had an average artistic level. It is said that, Qianlong's concubine Fang Fei Chen (芳妃陈氏) was once a Geji.^[89][90] By the Xianfeng (咸丰) period, there were still teachers for teaching Geji and systematic performance venues for Geji. Geji could play pipa and qiang flute, act in dramas. Nobles and wealthy businessmen viewed Geji's performances as entertainment.^[91]

Gejis had low social standing,they were professional entertainers who sometimes engaged in sexual activity with customers.^[92]The sexual relationship between a geji and her customer was usually more like a cohabitation relationship.^[93][94]Girls that undertook training to become geji were usually sold by their families or orphaned who either couldn’t afford to raise them, or wanted to give them the chance at upward mobility the profession enabled through the possibility of marriage or concubinage to the performer’s customers.Most of these girls start receiving artistic and cultural training at a very young age.^[95][96]Gejis would learn from teachers who taught art. In ancient society, there were teachers who provided singing and musical instrument teaching for gejis.^[97]Some gejis would also learn skills from well-known teachers, such as Li Xiangjun, who learned from the famous musician Su Kunsheng.^[98]Many gejis also had certain attainments in calligraphy and painting. They would copy the styles of some famous calligraphers and painters in the past dynasties in landscape painting, flower and bird painting etc, and they would have the opportunity to consult male calligraphers and painters in society on calligraphy and painting issues.^[99]Some even studied directly with famous calligraphers and painters, such as Xue Susu's painting teacher was the calligrapher and painter Dong Qichang.^[100]Lin Nuer became a female disciple of the famous calligrapher and scholar Shen Zhou.^[101]As professional entertainers, gejis would continue to practice their skills throughout their profession careers, even if they were already living with men.^{[citation needed]}

The names of singing and dancing venues in ancient China include yuefu(乐府), jiaofang(教坊), goulanwashe(勾栏瓦舍),^[102] gelou(歌楼),^[103] qinglou(青楼)^{[Label 2]} and wuxie(舞榭).^[104] Although the meanings of these singing and dancing venues have changed in different dynasties, but cannot equate all singing and dancing venues with brothels or places of prostitution.^{[Label 1]}Starting from the Tang Dynasty, there was a custom among gejis that those who had a good relationship would become sworn sisters and were called "incense brothers(香火兄弟)" and "handkerchief sisters(手帕姐妹)".^{[Label 3]}

Geji were initially not involved in the direct sex trade, but rather were entertainers who performed music and arts, such as poetry, music and singing,^[105][106] to please dignitaries and intellectuals.^[107][108] They were respected and renowned for their art and education in the classics,^[106] and were hired to perform to both male and female clients, as well as employed by the state.^[107] After the establishment of the Qing dynasty in 1644, however, the Geji were banned from being employed by the state.^[107] During the Qing dynasty, although Geji were no longer employed by the state, the Geji system still continued, and Geji and prostitutes maintained boundaries. Before 1860, there was still a system of teaching and performing Geji in society, watching Geji performances was an entertainment activity for the wealthy. After 1860, due to the influence of social environment, the Geji system began to disappear.^[91][109] Prostitutes began to gradually replace Geji, and prostitutes from the eight major alleys (八大胡同) in Beijing became popular. Emperor Tongzhi (同治) of the late Qing dynasty went to visit prostitutes in Bada Hutong and died of syphilis at the age of 19.^[110] By 1865, a few Geji and singing and dancing establishments were still operating. At this time, Geji who could write traditional poems were already very scarce. Geji who were still performing at the same time were also performing in song and dance venues and at parties invited by the wealthy. In order to cater to the remaining audiences, they began to include pornographic songs in their singing, and their clothes became more tacky. The remaining Geji gradually chose to follow the patrons who liked them and quit the career of Geji.^[111]

During the Qing dynasty in Taiwan, local Geji in Taiwan were called Yidan (艺旦). Initially, there was not much difference between Yidans and prostitutes. The formal distinction between Yidans and prostitutes was during the Tongzhi (同治) period in Taiwan. With the development of trade in various places, merchants began to entertain guests, and there were more and more restaurants. In addition to eating and drinking, there was also a need for some entertainment programs. After the port was opened to trade in the late Qing dynasty, the number of literati, wealthy businessmen, and officials coming to Taiwan increased, and the demand for entertainment and banquets also increased. Therefore, Yidan (艺旦) who did not engage in prostitution began to appear, and "Yidan room (艺旦间)" for Yidans to perform. Starting from the period of study, Yidan performs in Yidan rooms or in restaurants. Yidan also performs at temple fairs, private banquets, public events and other occasions outside restaurants. Yidans will perform traditional musical instruments such as pipa, sanxian and dulcimer, sing and dance, and recite poems to guests. Yidans also public performances of "Yidan Opera (艺旦戏)" opera. Yidan also needs to go to Sishu (私塾) to study and learn poetry culture. The female boss (女老板) of Yidan (艺旦) will ask Mr. Xiaoshu (校书先生) to teach Yidan music theory and opera, such as teaching Nanguan (南管) or Beiguan (北管). Yidan students must learn all the repertoire of "Yidan Qu (艺旦曲)" and pass Mr. Xiaoshu's (校书先生) test before they are qualified to become Yidan. This tradition of Geji in Taiwan continued into Taiwan's post-war period. With the development of popular culture, Yidan gradually disappeared.^{[112][113][114][115]} Recording began to flourish in Taiwan in 1926, and music at this time was recorded by Yidan (艺旦).^[116] Famous Yidans in Taiwan include Wang Xiangchan (王香禅), Chen Tian (陈甜), etc.^[117][118]

During the Qing dynasty, there was a kind of female storyteller, also known as "Nv Tanci (女弹词)". They were not Geji or prostitutes, and generally did not engage in prostitution. The female storyteller performs in the Shuchang (书场), plays and sings with her pipa, and tells Chuanqi (传奇) stories. Female storytellers have teachers who pass down their skills, and they learn their skills from an early age.^{[119] [120][121]} In the early years of Xianfeng's reign, Zhu Sulan (朱素兰), a Geji, combined the careers of female storyteller and Geji,founded a "Shuyu (书寓)" in Shanghai. Zhu Sulan has very strict requirements for Geji. They must have storytelling skills and be taught by teachers, and they tell about some books Chuanqi (传奇) stories. These Geji tell Chuanqi stories, play the piano and sing, and they also entertain guests with drinks, but they do not engage in prostitution. Zhu Sulan's combination of the two professions was highly praised, and Shuyu (书寓) flourished for a while. In the early years of Tongzhi (同治), the Geji Zhou Ruixian (周瑞仙) and Yan Lizhen (严丽贞) were popular. Zhou Ruixian is famous for saying "Three Smiles on Marriage (三笑姻缘)", but she can only tell half of it, while Yan Lizhen can tell all. When Zhou Ruixian got older, she trained young Geji to get paid.^[122][123] After the Taiping Rebellion, the Shuyu (书寓) industry has been transformed into prostitutes, and more prostitutes have entered this industry. After the 1870s, many Shuyus (书寓) moved to Shanghai's concessions, and prostitution became commonplace.^[124][125]

During the late Qing dynasty and the Republic of China, due to the times, society as a whole fell into poverty, and the Geji culture could no longer sustain itself. During the late Qing dynasty and the Republic of China, there were a large number of prostitutes engaged in prostitution in China, and these prostitutes had different levels. The prostitutes combined the social function of the Geji with the career of a prostitute, further replacing the Geji in social functions.^[126][127] Although prostitutes or Sing-song girls replaced the Geji, their skills were not as good as those of the Geji in the past. Prostitutes focus on accompanying customers with drinks. Prostitutes do not play chess or talk about poetry with their customers like Geji. Instead, they play cards and mahjong with their customers. Prostitutes did not have much artistic skills, and the songs and dances they performed also contained more erotic elements, and they were unable to perform a complete repertoire.^[128][129] Most prostitutes are illiterate and uneducated. Even high-class prostitutes rarely received education, and a few only received primary education and did not receive specialized poetry education.^[130] At that time, many prostitutes gathered on boats on the water to engage in prostitution. After about 1889, Puji (濮姬), a Geji educated in singing and poetry, make a living in the prostitutes gathering area on the water. Puji acted alone and made a living by singing in the area as a Geji. She wrote a collection of poems, but few people appreciate her. Puji could no longer make a living just by singing. She also had to weave baskets to make ends meet, so she was not wealthy. Puji met Xie Xixun (谢锡勋), an imperial examination candidate during the Guangxu (光绪) period. Xie Xixun admired the poems written by Puji. Puji was married as a concubine by Xie Xixun and lived a stable life.^[131] In the middle of the Guangxu period of the Qing dynasty, Geji were once again trained in Beijing, and their residences were called Xiaobans (小班). But when the Boxer Rebellion (义和团运动)began, these Geji scattered. Later, the brothels run by prostitutes continued to be named Xiaoban (小班) or Qingyin Xiaoban (清吟小班), and their occupation changed to prostitution, which was different from before.^{[132][133][134]}

Jiaoshu (校书) is an official position for men in ancient China,this word was not a derogatory term used for women in ancient China. Female Jiaoshu (女校书) was not a derogatory term in ancient China. In ancient China, it could be used to praise talented women among Geji, or even to praise talented women among purdah women. Xue Tao (薛涛), a famous Geji, female poet and Qing guest (清客) in the Tang dynasty, was called the female Jiaoshu (女校书) because of her outstanding talent. This is an affirmation of Xue Tao's talent. After Xue Tao, talented Geji were called "female Jiaoshu (女校书)". Xue Susu (薛素素), a famous Geji and female painter during the Ming dynasty, was known as the "Ten Talented Woman (十能才女)" and the "Female Jiaoshu (女校书)" because of her talent. Lin Xue (林雪), a Geji and female painter in the Ming dynasty, was called "Female Jiaoshu (女校书)" because of her excellent painting ability. Wang Wei (王微), a famous Geji and female poet in the late Ming dynasty, was also called "Female Jiaoshu (女校书)" because of her talent.^{[135] [136][137]} Among the boudoir women, the talented Ban Zhao (班昭), Xie Daoyun (谢道韫) and Huang Yuanjie (黄媛介) are also called female Jiaoshu (女校书) because of their outstanding talents.^[138][139] There were also a few prostitutes in ancient China who might call themselves female Jiaoshu (女校书), but this was not the mainstream.^[140] Nv Shi (女史) was a female palace official in ancient China who was in charge of matters related to palace etiquette, writing documents, etc. The term Nv Shi (女史) is also a good name for intellectual women in ancient China. Dong Xiaowan (董小宛), a famous Geji in the Ming dynasty, was outstandingly talented. She was also a female poet, painter, Kunqu actor (昆曲演员), and even one of the top ten famous chefs in ancient China. Dong Xiaowan's nickname is "Qinglian Nv Shi (青莲女史)", which she took on because of her admiration for the Chinese Tang dynasty poet Li Bai (李白).^[141][142] During the late Qing dynasty and the Republic of China, Geji culture declined. In order to promote themselves, high-class prostitutes or Sing-song girls called themselves "Jiaoshu (校书)" and "Ci Shi (词史)", even though most of them were uneducated, and the literate ones among them there is also not enough cultural level. At the same time, the brothel frequenters of these prostitutes also like to call them "Jiaoshu (校书)" and "Ci Shi (词史)" to show off.^[143][144] The prostitutes in "Shuyu (书寓)" who turned into prostitution call themselves "Sir" or "Xiansheng (先生)", the first-class brothels are called "Changsan Shuyu (长三书寓)", and the first-class prostitutes are also called "Xiansheng". The reason why they are called Xiansheng is not because these prostitutes have a high level of education. "Xiansheng" is a method used by high-end prostitutes to improve themselves. It roughly means that they are a little educated and can sing and dance a little, they cannot be compared with low-level prostitutes who know nothing.^[145] This is different from the traditional Geji in ancient China, but during the Republic of China, many prostitutes and prostitute operators could call themselves singing girls or Geji at will.^[146][147]

In the early 1920s, commercial dance halls began to appear in Shanghai, and the profession of dancing girl appeared in the dance halls to accompany men in dancing.^[148] The image and dancing skills of the Paramount dancing girls were the highest overall among the ballroom dancing girls at that time. Ballroom dancing girls not only provide backup dancers, but also provide entertainment activities such as accompanying customers to drink and party chat. Therefore, ballroom dancing girls have replaced high-end prostitutes in brothels in terms of social functions.^[149][150] The dancing girls in the big ballroom are more similar to the Geji in ancient China than the prostitutes, but there are many differences between the two. Dancing girls do not need poetry or painting skills, and chatting with customers focuses more on drinking. The dancing girls danced Western ballroom dances, while the ancient Geji performed Chinese classical dances. To a certain extent, dancing girls focus more on companionship, while ancient Geji focus more on performance. Geji in ancient times needed to be trained from an early age, and the training took a long time. Dancing girls during the Republic of China usually received training for three or four months after they reached adulthood. Dancing girls in small dance halls during the Republic of China were usually prostitutes who had a low income and also engaged in prostitution to earn income.^[151][152]

During the Republic of China, a small number of singing girls made a living by singing in teahouses and restaurants. At that time, except for Taiwan, there was no relatively complete Geji system. Singing girls who work in teahouses and restaurants usually only need to learn the skills of singing and playing musical instruments. There are no cultural requirements, and they do not need to learn skills such as poetry, chess, paint and dance. There is a kind of Geji in the Qinhuai area of Nanjing, whose profession is singing. These Geji used to be in teahouses, singing big songs and other songs. Later, singing girls were banned and were not allowed to sing in teahouses. These singing girls continued to sing on the Qinhuai River in boats known as "seven boards (七板子)". They always sat in front of the boats and did not engage in prostitution. There are musicians and others accompaniment in the boat, and there are about two singing girls in each boat. After dark, the boats of singing girls go about their business outside Dazhong Bridge, asking people passing by if they want to listen to music. There were also prostitutes engaged in prostitution on the boats on the Qinhuai River.^[153] From the late Qing dynasty to the Republic of China, there was group of Tang Kou (堂口) in Guangzhou opened and run by wealthy "Shi Niang (师娘)" who specialized in adopting and training blind girl to learn arts. They taught them the skills of playing the piano, singing and divination, that they could sing for them in the future make money. Wealthy families often invite Shi Niang (师娘) to sing and entertain at their weddings. During the day and at night when there was no need for singing activities, Shi Niang also engaged in handicraft work at the teacher's house, such as weaving bamboo utensils and making yarn. Shi Niang (师娘) refers to a blind singing girl who makes a career of singing Cantonese songs, also known as "Gu Ji (瞽姬)". In the early days, most sang wooden fish songs, dragon boat songs, Nanyin songs, and Cantonese songs. By the late Qing dynasty, they mainly sang Cantonese songs. From the late Qing dynasty to before the May 4th Movement, Cantonese songs entered the "Shi Niang (师娘)" period. At the beginning of the 20th century, the teahouse in Xiguan, Guangzhou pioneered the Shi Niang (师娘) singing method of "one tea table and two chairs". As soon as this example was launched, teahouses in the Pearl River Delta region, Hong Kong and Macau followed suit.^[154][155]

Around 1918, Nv Ling (女伶) normal vision began to sing on stage. The first Nv Ling (女伶) to sing on stage was Lin Yanyu (林燕玉), whose stage name was Feng Ying (凤影). She set a precedent for blind singing girl to sing with Nv Ling (女伶). Lin Yanyu turned out to be a young girl in a brothel,she was a singing girl who had not yet engaged in prostitution only entertained guests by singing songs. She left the brothel to make a living singing. Zhuo Keqing (卓可卿), a singing girl from the same background as Lin Yanyu, was also hired by the qutan (曲坛) to sing on stage. Some singing girls who originally sang provincial minor tunes and local folk arts also left their original environment and joined the folk arts team. This is the origin of "Nv Ling (女伶)". They gradually replaced the original "Shi Niang (师娘)" who sang ancient Cantonese song and became active In the emerging teahouse singing scene.^[156] During the Republic of China, there were also singing girls sing popular songs in large dance halls or nightclubs. They are dancing girls in the dance hall, but because they are mainly responsible for singing in the dance hall, strictly speaking the title of singing girl is more appropriate.^[157] During the late Qing dynasty and the Republic of China, there were three relatively well-known and relatively traditional Geji,Yang Cuixi,Xiao Fengxian and Li Pingxiang (李苹香). During the late Qing dynasty and the Republic of China, there were very few traditional Geji and they were no longer organized. Like Xiao Fengxian and Li Pingxiang, there are very few brothel girls who can escape prostitution.

There was no special appearance of the costumes of Geji in ancient China; their costumes were generally based on the popular styles of the society at that time.During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, Geji wore hoods, and dancing girls had sleeves several feet long. During the Warring States Period, Geji wore long-sleeved, curved-hem robes with cross collars and right lapels, long robes that trailed on the ground, and large belts tied around the waist.The Geji wore curved skirts, had extremely thin waists, their hair hung down to their shoulders and was slightly curled upwards. This was roughly the typical attire of Geji in the Yanzhao region.^[158][159]The Geji of the Warring States Period also wore fan-shaped buns on their heads, with two strands of hair hanging down like phoenix wings, and one strand of hair on top of their heads floating upwards. They tied a small braid at the back of their heads, with the knot clearly visible.^[160]The Geji painted on the unearthed painted wooden figurines and lacquer boxes of the Chu State all wore quju(曲裾) Hanfu(汉服), mostly long robes that reached the ground. This style was later borrowed by the robes of the Han Dynasty.^[161]The leaders of women's clothing in the Han Dynasty were noble ladies and Geji in the capital. The clothing of Geji in the Han Dynasty, with long sleeves, tight waists, and lightness, was the best among women's clothing of the time. The dancing costumes of Geji in the Han Dynasty showed the beauty of the human body very well. The most eye-catching design of the dancing costumes was the long sleeves, which were an indispensable auxiliary means for dancing girls to express their feelings.^[162]The costumes of court Geji in the Qin and Han dynasties were ingenious and varied, with light and gorgeous textures. They wore long-sleeved tight short tops and long skirts that dragged on the ground, they decorated with gold, silver, jewelry, tortoise shells, feathers, and jade. Court Geji in the Han Dynasty were famous for their ability to dance with water sleeves. Water sleeves are a special kind of clothing that appeared in the Qin and Han dynasties. The sleeves of ordinary clothes were connected to a section, and then narrow and long false sleeves were installed to increase the beauty of the dance. This kind of clothing was loved by many people, and the water sleeves in later opera costumes were influenced by this dance costume.^[163]The geji has her hair in a high bun, which is decorated with jewels and flowers. She wears a long robe that trails on the ground with a left lapel, which is a typical Eastern Han Dynasty costume.^[164]Zhao Feiyan(赵飞燕), a concubine of Emperor Cheng of Han who was born as a geji, invented a pleated skirt which she named "Liuxian skirt(留仙裙)". This skirt later became popular among women.^[165]

The Geji of the Sui Dynasty wore narrow-sleeved tunics and high-waisted bust-binding skirts with flowing brocade belts. They liked to wear combs, which were popular at the time, on their heads.^[166]In the Tang Dynasty, liao ling(缭绫) was used not only for official uniforms, but also for the clothes of palace maids and Geji,using it for dance clothes was considered a great luxury and waste. The dance clothes of Geji had wide sleeves and long skirts, which were not common in real life. At that time, ordinary shirts had narrow sleeves and long skirts, but not as long as those made specifically for dancing.^[167]"Banbi(半臂)" is a tight-fitting, half-sleeved, wide-necked, short top that slightly exposes the chest. There are different types of neckline styles. The open neckline was popular during the heyday of the Tang Dynasty. It was originally worn by court concubines and Geji, and later by noble ladies.Geji in the Tang Dynasty would also wear half-sleeve garments with pleated sleeves.There were dozens of types of dances in the Tang Dynasty, and Geji would wear different clothes and accessories when performing different dances.The "Jiaofang Ji(教坊记)" records the costumes of "Shengshouyue(圣寿乐)". The skirts of the Geji were all embroidered with a large flower. On the outside of the embroidered skirt, they wore a short shirt of the same color as the embroidered skirt. When the Geji appeared, the audience saw that they were wearing only a single-color dress. When they danced to the second fold, the Geji gathered in the middle of the stage, and immediately took off the shirts from their collars and put them in their arms.^[168]The costumes for Tang Dynasty's vigorous dances(健舞) mostly had small sleeves to facilitate leaping and spinning, while the costumes for Tang Dynasty's soft dances(软舞) mostly had large sleeves to show graceful and relaxed postures.^[169]The Zhezhi dance(柘枝舞) of the Tang Dynasty was a Hu dance(胡舞). The Geji wore red or purple Luoshan and a Hu hat with golden bells on it. The golden bells were its characteristic. The Geji wore red brocade boots and long hanging belts, which formed the impression of the costumes of the Zhezhi dancing girls in the Tang Dynasty.^[170]At that time, a piece of clothing worn by a courtesan in Chang'an City of the Tang Dynasty might cost three hundred strings of cash.Famous poets in the Tang Dynasty often wrote poems and essays for Geji. They might write about what clothes a certain geji wore or what hairstyle she had. This would quickly spread, and other women would follow suit and imitate the geji's dress.^[171]

Song Dynasty Geji would wear the same clothes when rehearsing for group performances. For example, Geji would wear a light-colored tube-top dress with a red beizi(褙子) on the outside. Geji would also wear a tube-top dress with a beizi(褙子) of another color on a daily basis.The tube-top dresses worn by Geji would also have embroidered patterns, such as small golden phoenix patterns.Song Dynasty Geji would also wear flower crowns as headdresses, which were sometimes decorated with flowers.^[172]Some Geji also wore shanzis(衫子) on top and trousers on the bottom instead of skirts.^[173]The long silk scarf that women in ancient times draped over their shoulders and wrapped around their arms was called a shawl. In the Song Dynasty, shawls were initially worn by concubines and Geji. When they walked, they dragged two ribbons to add to the graceful beauty of women. Later, they gradually became part of the dress of women in the folk.^[174]In the Yuan Dynasty, the "jacket and skirt" style of clothing was very popular among young women, and Geji also liked to dress this way. Geji wore short clothes on their upper body, called ru (襦), ao (袄), shan (衫), and skirts on their lower body. Geji' clothing was mostly made of expensive silk fabrics, mostly made of gauze, brocade, and silk.The hairstyle of Han people in the Yuan Dynasty generally followed the tradition of previous generations, and they liked to pile up their hair in a bun. Geji liked to comb their hair to the top of the head, comb it into one or several strands, and then coil it into various shapes. The hair combed to the top of the head was higher than the bun coiled behind the head, so it was called "high bun". "Cloud bun" was a popular style of Geji at that time.^[175]In the early Ming Dynasty, it was stipulated that Geji were not allowed to wear fancy clothes and could only wear clothes of low-key colors.The Geji wore horn crowns and beizis(褙子), which had to be simple.The Geji in the palace had to wear more gorgeous clothes. Their clothes could have round collars made of blue silk. They wore black Tang scarves, with golden flowers embroidered on the bright red collars, and gold-plated flower belts. They could also wear bright red silk headbands, blue-green silk painted cloud shoulders, and gold-painted peony flower soap boots.^[176][177]In the middle and late Ming Dynasty, the dress regulations for Geji were abolished, and Geji began to lead the trend of women's clothing to a certain extent. Some Geji' clothing was mainly elegant, with exquisite details on the clothing.^[178]In the middle and late Ming Dynasty, the ponytail skirt(马尾裙) from the Korean Peninsula was introduced to the Ming Dynasty. Beijing's Geji were the first women to start wearing ponytail skirts, and later women from other classes also began to wear ponytail skirts.^[179]In ancient China, women could use veils such as weimao(帷帽)and muli(幕离) to cover their faces when they went out, and Geji could also use these two to cover their faces.^[180]

Ancient Geji were also good at applying makeup. Pang Sanniang(庞三娘), a geji in the Tang Dynasty, was old and had wrinkles on her face, but she was particularly good at applying makeup. She put a gauze on her face and then mixed mica powder and honey on it, making her skin look as smooth and white as a young girl.Yan Daniang(颜大娘), a geji in the Tang Dynasty, had ugly and slightly deformed eyes, but she was very good at applying eye makeup. She was able to use makeup to address the defects of her eyes and make her eyes look lively.^[181][182]The Geji of the Tang Dynasty painted themselves with light pink rouge, small red lips, and cute dotted mianyes(面靥).Mianyes(面靥), usually painted on the dimples of the face, is also called zhuangye(妆靥). Court Geji saw the round and cute red mianyes and would imitate them from time to time and use them as makeup. The shape of mianyes can be simple dots or gorgeous and beautiful like flower ornaments. Tang Dynasty Geji wore high buns, their cheeks were as red as sunset clouds, and their lips were as red as peach blossoms.The custom of women wearing huadians(花钿) on their foreheads existed in the Qin and Han dynasties, but was most popular during the Tang and Five Dynasties. "Huadians" are a kind of makeup worn between the eyebrows. The Geji of the Tang Dynasty had peach blossom jade faces and huadians between their eyebrows like dew.There were many kinds of eyebrow shapes popular among women in the Tang Dynasty, and Geji were also good at drawing eyebrows. Geji often had elegant postures and picturesque eyebrows.^[183]During the Tang and Song dynasties, Geji also studied lip makeup to some extent. Their lip makeup had different shades and depths, as well as different sizes and shapes. The fashionable lip balms that Geji mastered at the time had different colors and scents according to different ingredients. They used these lip balms with ever-changing colors and scents to paint a variety of exquisite lip shapes.^[184]The Geji of the Song Dynasty were also good at drawing eyebrows. They liked to draw their eyebrows into the shape of delicate willow leaves, which were called "willow leaf eyebrows".^[185]"Hua Zi(花子)" is a dian(钿), which is usually made into the shape of a flower, also known as "hua dian(花钿)". Yuan Dynasty Geji usually cut gold foil and paper into patterns and pasted them on their faces, which was called "tie dian(贴钿)".Ancient Chinese women often used various spices, the most famous of which was rose water(蔷薇水), a strong perfume obtained by distilling rose flowers. It originated in Persia and Arabia and had entered China at least during the Five Dynasties, and was very popular among upper-class women and Geji.Ancient Chinese people often admired and appreciated women's slender fingers. The slenderness and beauty of women's fingers were also for decorative reasons. Some Geji would grow their nails long and take care of them frequently.^[186]

Nowadays, few people distinguish between Geji and prostitutes, thus causing some confusion between the two. In English, the English expressions for Geji and prostitutes in China are also relatively vague,both Geji and high-end prostitutes are called "courtesan". For example, the high-end prostitutes in the red light district of Pingkangfang in the Tang dynasty were called "courtesan" in English, and the Geji in Jiaofang or song and dance venue in the Tang dynasty were also called "courtesan" in English.^[187][188]High-end prostitutes or famous prostitutes such as Sai Jinhua and Du Shiniang who are engaged in prostitution are called "courtesan" in English. Well-known Geji such as Eight Beauties of Qinhuai and Xue Tao who are engaged in performing arts are also called "courtesan" in English.^[189][190]Stories about Geji and prostitutes in ancient China are sometimes called "courtesan" stories. The story about the Geji The Tale of Huo Xiaoyu and The Peach Blossom Fan corresponds to "courtesan" in English, while the story about the high-end prostitute The Tale of Li Wa and “The Oil Vendor and the Queen of Flowers” also corresponds to "courtesan" in English.^{[191][192][193]} Because both Geji and high-end prostitutes can be called "courtesan" in English, it is sometimes easy to cause misunderstandings. In Chinese, the English word "courtesan" is often translated as "prostitute" in the Chinese language environment, so this can easily cause misunderstanding.^[194] In ancient Chinese society, a Geji was a performer who was engaged in sing and dance performances, and there was a certain difference from high-end prostitutes who were engaged in prostitution.^{[195][196][197]}

In ancient Chinese society, Geji belonged to the lower class of society, and their social status was far lower than that of the upper-class men with whom they interacted. However, they generally did not engage in prostitution, and their relationships with men were usually not based on prostitution and whoring relationship. In ancient Chinese culture, the upper class needed art for entertainment, so they naturally needed professional entertainers with performing arts.^[198] However, because entertainers were people who entertained the upper class, their social status was lower.^[199] The social status of female entertainers was lower than that of male entertainers because in ancient China men could participate in various jobs and were considered the main source of family income, women are usually confined to the home, and most women cannot go out to work.^[200] In ancient Chinese tradition, women took acting as their profession, and it was not appropriate for women to play musical instruments in front of men. Therefore, female performers were at the bottom of society. Although the social status of Geji is lower, Geji is one of the female professions in ancient China, Geji and prostitutes are two professions that exist in society at the same time.^[78]

Selling songs is different from prostitution, listening to songs is different from whoring, and what does it have to do with morality? ——However, since they are forced to sing as a career, their songs must have no artistic interest; besides, we should sympathize with their life experiences.

— Zhu Ziqing, Prose"The Qinhuai River in the Sound of Oars and Shadows of Lanterns"

^[201]

The ancient Chinese allusion of "Yuyin Raoliang (余音绕梁)" comes from a Geji named Han E(韩娥). Han'e, the Hanguo (先秦韩国) Geji of the pre-Qin dynasty, came to Qi from Hanguo. She had beautiful appearance, beautiful voice, and her singing was also very emotional. When Han E cried with a "Man Sheng (曼声)", the song she sang was extremely sad, and people were immersed in sadness after listening to it. People in the Yongmen area of Qi State were famous for their singing skills because they learned Han E's singing. People in the capital of Qi are good at singing and crying sadly, which was influenced by Han E.^{[202][203][204]}

Geji also participated in the singing of ancient Chinese Yuefu (乐府) music. During the Southern and Northern dynasties (南北朝), the authors of folk songs in the Southern dynasties were Han Chinese (汉人), and many Yuefu poems were written by Geji.^[205][206]Geji are the receivers and disseminators of Tang poetry. They participate in the oral dissemination method of Tang poetry construction, but are closely related to the written creation of Tang poetry.^[207] The repeated singing of Song Ci (宋词) by Geji promoted the popularity of Ci. To a certain extent, it influenced and consolidated the aesthetic appreciation of the people of the Song dynasty for Ci, creating a trend of literati writing Ci, Geji singing Ci, and the people loving Ci. Geji had a profound impact on the development of Song Ci.^[208]In the Yuan dynasty, Geji widely participated in the performance of zaju (杂剧). Through the practice of stage performance, Geji made the singing skills and other stage arts of zaju improved and perfected, and the performances of Geji in various places objectively promoted the spread of zaju.^[209][210]

The importance of courtesans in Chinese love, literature, music, politics, etc cannot be overemphasized. Men think it is inappropriate for women of purdah families to play musical instruments, which is harmful to their moral cultivation; it is also inappropriate for them to read too many books, which is also harmful to their morals. Painting and poetry are rarely encouraged. However, men do not give up the pursuit of female companions with literary and artistic attainments. Those gejis have great development in these areas because they do not need ignorance to protect their morality.

— Lin Yutang, My Country and My People——Courtesans and Concubines

^[211]

Two female poets of the "Four Great Female Poets of the Tang Dynasty", Xue Tao and Liu Caichun, were born as Geji.^[212]Xue Tao, a female poet who was born a geji, is also among “the four great talented women in Shu(蜀中四大才女)”.Xue Tao was the first female innovator in the history of Chinese calligraphy,she is also a female innovator in the history of Chinese papermaking.^[213][214]Ma Xianglan(马湘兰) was born as a geji, was the first female xiqu(戏曲) writer in Chinese history.^[215]Ma Xianglan was also the first geji in Chinese history to form a Kunqu family troupe.^[216]The geji Xue Susu was the only female chess player in the Ming Dynasty for whom historical records can be found.^[217]Han Yuesu(韩约素) was a geji in the late Ming Dynasty and became a seal engraver in the Qing Dynasty. She is the first Chinese female seal engraver to be recorded in the "Biography of Seal Engravers(印人传)" as a seal engraver.^[218]Dong Xiaowan, who was born a geji, invented tiger skin meat(虎皮肉) and Dong sugar(董糖).Dong Xiaowan is listed among the "Top Ten Famous Chefs in Ancient China" and "Six Beautiful Chefs in Ancient China".^[219][220]Zhu Sulan(朱素兰), a geji and female pingtan artist,she create the first female storyteller Shuyu(书寓) or Shuchang(书场), further expanding the social influence of pingtan(评弹).^[221][222]Yang Cuixi(杨翠喜) is an Hebei Bangzi(河北梆子) and Peking Opera actress,she is also a Geji.^[223][224]Yang Cuixi was one of the first actresses in China to start performing Peking Opera.^[225]

In ancient China, male poets and scholars spared no effort to describe the singing and dancing tradition of Geji, which made Geji closely associated with Chinese literary history. The intellectual women in ancient China included Geji, and part of the content about the intellectual education of women in ancient China also needs to be explored among these Geji.Some men looked for Geji who excelled in poetry, music, painting, and clever repartee. Because of men's pursuit of talented women, the requirements for Geji are no longer limited to music and dance. The requirements for Geji have also included elegant skills such as poetry, go, and tea ceremony.The geji culture in ancient China reshaped the purely sexual relationship with prostitutes into a cultural relationship. Men could even develop a like-minded friendship with a geji.Geji were required to be educated in the art field that belonged to male scholars, so that they could be refined and even masculine. But in fact, in ancient Chinese society, even though Geji were versatile, they were still regarded as "fashionable items" needed by elite men.^[226][227]

Because of the restrictions on purdah women's travel, many young men may have lost the opportunity for courtship and romance during their first marriage. Some gentry chose to fall in love with well-educated Geji outside of the marriage and concubine system. In ancient Chinese novels about Caizi jiaren(才子佳人), the protagonists of some stories appear as Geji.In ancient Chinese tradition, Geji needed to be pursued by men, and the pursuit of Geji might take several months, but prostitutes did not need to be pursued.^[226][228]In ancient China, concubinage was legal. It was a common practice for an upper-class married male to have one or more concubines, provided he could support them.The custom could be invoked without the wife's consent. A man might choose a geji to be his concubine. Many Geji would also use art and poetry to attract potential husbands in the hopes of becoming concubines.^[229]

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Look up 歌妓 or Gējì in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Geisha and Maiko in Japan
• Kisaeng in Korea
• Tawaif in India
• Gaṇikā in India
• Nagarvadhu in India
• Qiyan in the pre-modern Islamic world
• Almah in the Middle East

^{label 1} There are some terms related to geji that need to be explained and analyzed. These words have multiple meanings and change with the development of the times. The specific meaning of the words needs to be interpreted according to the context. Although some terms can refer to geji and prostitutes together, they cannot be understood as having only one meaning of prostitution.

^{label 2} Qinglou originally referred to a courtyard with blue bricks and green tiles, or a building painted with blue lacquer. The word Qinglou was also used to refer to the residence of an emperor or a noble family, such as the Xingguang Tower(兴光楼) of Emperor Wu of the Southern Qi Dynasty.^[1]During the Han and Wei dynasties, many wealthy families painted their homes with blue lacquer to symbolize good luck and prosperity, and even emperors had a hobby of painting their buildings with blue lacquer.^[2]In the Spring and Autumn Period in 645 BC, Guan Zhong, a senior minister of Qi State, established a "Nulv(女闾)" in the city, and as many as 700 women entered the brothel. The brothels opened by Guan Zhong(管仲) were called Nulv, Neilv(内闾) and Fulv(妇闾) at the time, not Qinglou.^[3]The geji culture in ancient China originated from the court of the Xia Dynasty, and gradually spread from the court to the people. It did not originate from the prostitution system established by Guan Zhong.^[4]The word qinglou was later used to refer to places for sing and dance. For example, in the "Yuefu Poetry Collection(乐府诗集)", qinglou refers to both attic courtyards with blue bricks and blue tiles and places for sing and dance.^[5][6]During the Tang Dynasty, the word qinglou was mainly used to refer to places for sing and dance and brothels.^[7][8] The poet Li Bai also called the residence of court dancing girls qinglou.^[9]In the Yuan Dynasty, qinglou was associated with zaju(杂剧). In addition to brothels, qinglou also refers to performance venues for zaju or singing and dancing.^[10]Until the Qing Dynasty, the word qinglou was mainly used to refer to places for sing and dance and brothels.^[11][12] In the late Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, qinglou began to have only the meaning of brothels.^[13]

^{label 3} The custom of gejis becoming sworn sisters began in the Tang Dynasty. During the Tang Dynasty, gejis in the Jiaofang who shared similar aspirations would become sworn sisters. The largest number of sworn sisters was 14 or 15, and the smallest was 8 or 9. After becoming sworn sisters, they were called incense brothers. This custom was also continued in the Song Dynasty. Some prostitutes also adopted this custom in the Ming Dynasty. The sworn sisters of gejis and prostitutes were both called "handkerchief sisters". The nature of this custom is the same as the "handkerchief jiao(手帕交)" performed by women in the boudoir.The sworn sisters ceremony of gejis in the Ming Dynasty was a grand event, with 20 to 30 people each time. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, the geji system disappeared, and the sworn sisters ceremony was only still in operation among some prostitutes.

• Ai Zhiping(艾治平) (August 1, 2006). Yiji's poems and stories(艺妓诗事). Oxford: Xuelin Publisher(学林出版社). ISBN 9787807301707.
• Li Yueshen(李越深) (2007). The love affair between the 《Jianglikan》lyrics and Chen Zilong and Liu Rushi(《江蓠槛》词与陈子龙、柳如是恋情). Oxford: Journal of Zhejiang University-Humanities and Social Sciences(浙江大学学报-人文社会科学版). [中图分类号]I207；K204[文献标志码]A[文章编号]1008—942X(2007)01—0095—08".
• 作者:Timothy James Brook([加]卜正民)，译者:Fangjun(方骏) (2004).“The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China(纵乐的困惑：明代的商业与文化)”.Oxford:生活·读书·新知三联书店.ISBN 9787108020062.
• Meng Hui(孟晖) (September 2006).“Sixteen Sounds Among Flowers(花间十六声)”.Oxford:生活.读书.新知三联书店.ISBN 9787108023421.
• Wang Zhuohua(王卓华) (1993).“Yiji in the Yuan Dynasty and the Lyrics, Songs, Dances and Rap Arts(元代艺妓与元代词曲和歌舞说唱伎艺)”.Oxford:Yindu Academic Journal(殷都学刊).