Societal attitudes toward homosexuality: Difference between revisions

'''Societal attitudes towards homosexuality''' vary greatly in different cultures and different historical periods, as do attitudes toward sexual desire, activity and relationships in general. All cultures have their own [[Sexual norm|values regarding appropriate and inappropriate sexuality]]; many have sanctioned same-sex love and sexuality, while others have disapproved of such activities.<ref>Murray, Stephen O., ''Homosexualities'', University of Chicago 2000</ref> As with heterosexual behaviour, different sets of prescriptions and proscriptions may be given to individuals according to their [[gender]], [[ageing|age]], [[social status]] and/or [[social class|class]]. For example, among the [[samurai]] class of pre-modern Japan, it was recommended for a teenage novice to enter into an [[Shudo|erotic relationship]] with an older warrior, but sexual relations between the two became inappropriate once the boy came of age.<ref>Tsuneo Watanabe and Jun'ichi Iwata, ''The Love of the Samurai: A Thousand Years of Japanese Homosexuality'', GMP Publishers Ltd, London 1989</ref>

Most of the world's cultures have considered procreative sex within a recognised relationship to be a sexual norm — sometimes exclusively so, and sometimes alongside norms of same-sex love, whether passionate, intimate or sexual. Some [[religion]]s, especially those influenced by the [[Abrahamic religion|Abrahamic tradition]], have traditionally censured homosexual acts and relationships; in some cases implementing severe punishments for offenders.<ref>Crompton, Louis, ''Homosexuality and Civilization'', Harvard University, 2003</ref> Since the 1970s, much of the world has become more accepting of same-sex sexuality between partners of [[Age of consent|legal age]].<ref>Seth Faison, "Tolerance Grows for Homosexuals in China," The New York Times, New York, NY, 1997-SEP-2</ref><!-- need more citations--> The [[Pew Research Center]]'s 2003 Global Attitudes Survey found that "[p]eople in Africa and the Middle East strongly object to societal acceptance of homosexuality. But there is far greater tolerance for homosexuality in major Latin American countries such as Mexico, Argentina, Bolivia and Brazil. Opinion in Europe is split between West and East. Majorities in every Western European nation surveyed say homosexuality should be accepted by society, while most Russians, Poles and Ukrainians disagree. Americans are divided – a thin majority (51%) believes homosexuality should be accepted, while 42% disagree."<ref>[http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?ReportID=185 Pew Global Attitudes Survey 2003]</ref>

==Difficulties interpreting homosexuality in different cultures==

Contemporary scholars caution against applying modern Western assumptions about [[sex]] and [[gender]] to other times and places; what looks like same-sex sexuality to a Western observer may not be "same-sex" or "sexual" at all to the people engaging in such behaviour. For example, in the [[Bugis]] cultures of [[Sulawesi]], a female-bodied person who dresses and works in a masculine fashion and marries a woman is seen as belonging to a [[third gender]];<ref>Graham, Sharyn, [http://www.insideindonesia.org/edit66/bissu2.htm Sulawesi's fifth gender], ''Inside Indonesia'', April-June 2001.</ref> to the Bugis, their relationship is not homosexual (see [[Sexual orientation#Sexual orientation and gender identity|sexual orientation and gender identity]]). In the case of Sambia boys in New Guinea who ingest the semen of older males to aid in their maturation,<ref>Herdt G., ''Sambia: Ritual and Gender in New Guinea.'' New York: Rinehart and Winston, 1987</ref> it is disputed whether this is best understood as a sexual act at all.<ref>Leila J. Rupp, "Toward a Global History of Same-Sex Sexuality," Journal of the History of Sexuality 10 (April 2001): 287-302.</ref> In recent times, scholars have argued that notions of a homosexual and heterosexual identity, as they are currently known in the Western world, only began to emerge in Europe in the mid to late 19th century.<ref>Katz, Jonathan Ned, ''The Invention of Heterosexuality'' Plume, 1996</ref><ref>Andrews, Walter and Kalpakli, Mehmet, ''The Age of Beloveds: Love and the Beloved in Early Modern Ottoman and European Culture and Society'' Duke University Press, 2005 pp 11-12</ref>

==Measuring attitudes toward homosexuality==

{{Pew2002}}

From the 1970s, academics have researched attitudes held by individuals toward lesbians, gay men and bisexuals, and the social and cultural factors that underlie such attitudes. Numerous studies have investigated the prevalence of acceptance and disapproval of homosexuality, and have consistently found correlates with various demographic, psychological, and social variables. For example, studies (mainly conducted in the United States) have found that heterosexuals with positive attitudes towards homosexuality are more likely to be female, young, non-religious, well-educated, politically liberal or moderate, and have close personal contact with [[coming out|out]] gay men and lesbians.<ref>Studies finding that heterosexual men usually exhibit more hostile attitudes toward gay men and lesbians than do heterosexual women:<br>:*Herek, G. M. (1994). ''Assessing heterosexuals’ attitudes toward lesbians and gay men.'' In "B. Greene and G.M. Herek (Eds.) Psychological perspectives on lesbian and gay issues: Vol. 1 Lesbian and gay psychology: Theory, research, and clinical applications." Thousands Oaks, Ca: Sage.<br>:*Kite, M.E. (1984). ''Sex differences in attitudes toward homosexuals: A meta-analytic review.'' Journal of Homosexuality, 10 (1-2), 69-81.<br>:*Morin, S., & Garfinkle, E. (1978). ''Male homophobia.'' Journal of Social Issues, 34 (1), 29-47.<br>:*Thompson, E., Grisanti, C., & Pleck, J. (1985). ''Attitudes toward the male role and their correlates.'' Sex Roles, 13 (7/8), 413-427.<br>For other correlates, see:<br>:*Larson et al. (1980) ''Heterosexuals' Attitudes Toward Homosexuality'', The Journal of Sex Research, 16, 245-257<br>:*Herek, G. (1988), ''Heterosexuals' Attitudes Toward Lesbians and Gay Men'', The Journal of Sex Research, 25, 451-477<br>:*Kite, M.E., & Deaux, K., 1986. ''Attitudes toward homosexuality: Assessment and behavioral consequences. Basic and Applied Social Psychology,'' 7, 137-162<br>:*Haddock, G., Zanna, M. P., & Esses, V. M. (1993). ''Assessing the structure of prejudicial attitudes: The case of attitudes toward homosexuals.'' Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1105-1118.<br>:See also: Lewis, Gregory B., ''Black-White Differences in Attitudes toward Homosexuality and Gay Rights,'' Public Opinion Quarterly, Volume 67, Number 1, Pp. 59-78</ref> They are also more likely to have positive attitudes towards other minority groups<ref>Herek, G.M. (1991). ''Stigma, prejudice, and violence against lesbians and gay men.'' In: J. Gonsiorek & J. Weinrich (Eds.), "Homosexuality: Research implications for public policy" (pp. 60-80). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.</ref> and are less likely to support traditional gender roles.<ref> Kyes, K.B. & Tumbelaka, L. (1994). ''Comparison of Indonesian and American college students' attitudes toward homosexuality.'' Psychological Reports, 74, 227-237.</ref> Several studies have also suggested that heterosexual males exhibit slightly more negative attitudes toward gay men than toward lesbians, and some (but not all) have found that heterosexual females exhibit slightly more negative attitudes toward lesbians than toward gay men.<ref>Kite (1984) op cit.<br>*Kyes and Tumbelaka (1994) op cit.<br>*Millham, J., San Miguel, C.L., Kellogg, R. (1976). ''A factor-analytic conceptualization of attitudes toward male and female homosexuals.'' Journal of Homosexuality, 2 (1), 3-10.<br>*Herek (1984) found that heterosexual females tended to exhibit equally positive or negative attitudes toward gay men and lesbians. The heterosexual males, however, tended to respond more negatively, or unfavorably, to gay men than lesbians. Herek, G.M. (1984). ''Beyond “homophobia”: A social psychological perspective on attitudes toward lesbians and gay men.'' Journal of Homosexuality, 10 (1/2), 1-21.</ref>

[[Social psychology|Social psychologists]] such as [[Gregory Herek]] have examined underlying motivations for [[homophobia]] (hostility toward lesbians and gays), and cultural theorists have noted how portrayals of homosexuality often center around stigmatized phenomena such as AIDS, pedophilia, and gender variance. The extent to which such portrayals are [[stereotype]]s is disputed.

Contemporary researchers have measured attitudes held by heterosexuals toward gay men and lesbians in a number of different ways. Commonly used scales include those designed by Herek,<ref>Herek, G. (1988)</ref> Larson et al.,<ref>Larson et al. (1980)</ref> Kite and Deaux<ref>Kite, M.E., & Deaux, K. (1986)</ref> and Haddock et al.<ref>Haddock, et al. (1993)</ref>

Much less research has been conducted into societal attitudes toward [[bisexuality]].<ref>Herek, Gregory M. ''Heterosexuals' attitudes toward bisexual men and women in the United States'', Journal of Sex Research, Nov, 2002. [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2372/is_4_39/ai_96621265 online]</ref> What studies do exist suggest that the attitude of heterosexuals toward bisexuals mirrors their attitidue toward homosexuals,<ref>Ochs, R. (1996). ''Biphobia: It goes more than two ways.'' In: B. A. Firestein (Ed.), Bisexuality: The psychology and politics of an invisible minority (pp. 217-239). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.<br>* Rust, P. C. (2000). ''Bisexuality: A contemporary paradox for women.'' Journal of Social Issues, 56(2), 205-221.<br>* Weinberg, M. S., Williams, C. J., & Pryor, D. W. (1994). ''Dual attraction: Understanding bisexuality.'' New York: Oxford University Press.<br>* Mohr, J. J., & Rochlen, A. B. (1999). ''Measuring attitudes regarding bisexuality in lesbian, gay male, and heterosexual populations.'' Journal of Counseling Psychology, 46, 353-369.</ref> and that bisexuals experience a similar degree of hostility, discrimination, and violence relating to their sexual orientation as do homosexuals.<ref>Paul, J. P., & Nichols, M. (1988). ''"Biphobia" and the construction of a bisexual identity.'' In: M. Shernoff & W. Scott (Eds.), 'The sourcebook on lesbian/gay health care' (pp. 142-147). Washington, DC: National Lesbian and Gay Health Foundation.<br>* Ochs, R. (1996). op cit.<br>* Weinberg, et al. (1994). op cit.<br>* Herek, Gillis, and Cogan (1999) found that 15% of bisexual women (n = 190) and 27% of bisexual men (n = 191) had experienced a crime against their person or property because of their sexual orientation. compared to 19% of lesbians (n = 980) and 28% of gay men (n = 898). (Gillis, J. R., & Cogan, J. C. (1999). ''Psychological sequelae of hate crime victimization among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults.'' Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 945-951.)<br>*Note: the Kaiser Family Foundation (2001) found that bisexuals reported experiencing less prejudice and discrimination, while a 1997 study of heterosexual U.S undergraduate students found that they had more negative attitudes toward bisexuals than towards lesbians and gays. (Kaiser Family Foundation (2001), ''Inside-out: A report on the experiences of lesbians, gays, and bisexuals in America and the public's view on issues and politics related to sexual orientation.'' http://www.kff.org ; Eliason, M. J. (1997). ''The prevalence and nature of biphobia in heterosexual undergraduate students.'' Archives of Sexual Behavior, 26, 317-326.)</ref>

==Law==

{{main|Homosexuality laws of the world}}

The legal status of homosexuality varies greatly around the world. Homosexual sex acts may be illegal, especially under [[sodomy law]]s, and where they are legal, the [[age of consent]] often differs from country to country. In some cases, homosexuals are prosecuted under vaguely-worded "public decency" or morality laws. Some countries have special laws preventing certain public expressions of homosexuality, such as Britain's [[Section 28]] (now repealed). Nations or [[Subnational entity|subnational entities]] may have [[List of anti-discrimination acts|anti-discrimination legislation]] in place to protect against discrimination on the basis of [[sexual orientation]] in the workplace, housing, health services and education; such acts may also differ from state to state. Some give exemptions, allowing employers to discriminate if they are a religious organisation, or if the employee works with children.

[[Image:Laws on homosexuality.PNG|thumb|200px|left|World laws regarding homosexuality.]]

Legal recognition of [[same-sex relationship]]s also varies greatly. Legal privileges pertaining to different-sex relationships that may be extended to same-sex couples include parenting, [[adoption]] and access to [[Reproductive technology|reproductive technologies]]; [[immigration]]; spousal benefits for employees such as pensions, health funds and other services; family leave; medical rights, including hospital visitation, notification and [[power of attorney]]; [[inheritance]] when a partner dies without leaving a will; and social security and tax benefits. Same-sex couples without legal recognition may also lack access to domestic violence services, as well as mediation and arbitration over custody and property when relationships end. Some regions have laws specifically excluding same-sex couples from particular rights such as adoption.

In 2001, the [[Netherlands]] became the first country to recognize [[same-sex marriage]], and same-sex marriages were subsequently recognized in [[Belgium]] (2003), [[Spain]] and [[Canada]] (2005), and the U.S. state of [[Massachusetts]] (2004). Other legal recognition of same sex relationships (offering fewer benefits than marriage) include [[civil unions]] and [[domestic partnership]]s.

On the other end of the spectrum, several countries impose the death penalty for homosexual acts. [[As of 2006]], they are [[Mauritania]], [[Sudan]], [[Iran]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Yemen]], [[Pakistan]], the [[Chechen Republic]] and in regions under [[Sharia law]] in [[Nigeria]] and [[Somalia]]. All instances of homosexual acts are known to be illegal in about 80 out of the 192 countries of the world; in 42 of these, only male-male sex is outlawed.<ref>[http://www.ilga.info/Information/Legal_survey/summary_information_by_subject.htm ILGA World Legal Survey] (Last updated: 31 July 2000, accessed 19 April 2006); updates from [[Homosexuality laws of the world]]</ref>

==Religion and morality==

{{main|Homosexuality and religion}}

===Christianity===

{{main|Homosexuality and Christianity}}

Some religious groups consider homosexuality to be transgressive of divine law. According to the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], homosexual behavior is "intrisically disordered" and "contrary to natural law". As such, homosexual acts can be approved "under no circumstances." ([[Catechism of the Catholic Church|CCC]] 2357) The Catholic Church recognizes that the numbers of people with homosexual tendencies is not negligible and urges Catholics to eschew unjust discrimination. However, the Church also calls upon individuals inclined toward homosexuality to live lives of chastity. By way of counterpoint, [[John Boswell]] argued that church stance has varied over time, and that during several periods in European Christian history homosexuality was not repressed and was even celebrated.<ref>{{cite book | last = Boswell | first = John | authorlink = John Boswell | title = Christianity, Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality : Gay People in Western Europe from the Beginning of the Christian Era to the Fourteenth Century| year = 1980 | publisher = University Of Chicago Press | id = 0226067114}}</ref> However, this view is generally not accepted by church historians.

On the other hand, a number of religious establishments welcome homosexual individuals, either on a footing of equality with heterosexuals (such as the Unitarian Universalist congregation or some Anglican congregations in North America) or even according them special status as possessing enhanced spiritual abilities (as in many [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] and aboriginal religions).<ref>Walter Williams, ''The Spirit and the Flesh,'' passim</ref>

Acceptance or condemnation of homosexual behavior has led to strife within many religions denominations. In 2003, [[Gene Robinson]] was made a bishop of the Episcopal Church. His elevation has led to a rift in the Anglican communion which hovers on the brink of schism as a result (''main article: [[Anglican views of homosexuality]]'').

===Islam===

{{Main articles|[[Homosexuality and Islam]], [[Pederasty in the Islamic world]]}}

There is no concept analogous to "homosexuality" in Islam, in the sense of an innate identity. Instead, same-sex sexual expression manifests in a number of separate forms, which are not treated alike, either socially or juridically.

Rather, Islam concerns itself with sexual behaviors, rather than desires. In particular Islam condemns anal intercourse — whether with males or females — as a major sin. The concept of [[sexual orientation]] is not recognized or accepted in Islam.

According to Khaled El-Rouayheb, masculine attraction towards handsome adolescents is considered normal and universal in Muslim cultures, a temptation to be resisted in the same way one resists attraction towards females not lawful to one.<ref>El-Rouayheb, Khaled, ''Before Homosexuality in the Arab-Islamic World,'' Chicago, 2005</ref> [[Islamic fundamentalism|Fundamentalist]] groups advocated punishing sodomy with [[Flagellation|whipping]] and death.

==Anti-homosexual attitudes==

===Conservatism===

[[Conservatism]] is a term broadly used for people who are inclined to patriotism, traditional values, and (typically) strong religious beliefs.

Whislt conservatism includes people of many views, it has a significant proportion of adherents who consider homosexuals, and especially the efforts of homosexuals to achieve equal rights and recognition, to be a threat to valued traditions, institutions and freedoms. Such attitudes are generally tied in with opposition to what some conservatives call the [[homosexual agenda]].

The finding that attitudes to [[alternative sexuality|alternative sexualities]] correlate strongly with nature of contact and with personal beliefs is stated in a variety of research over a substantial time period, and conservative men and women stand out in their views specifically.

Thus Herek, who established the Attitudes Toward Lesbians and Gay Men Scale in psychology, states:

:''"The ATLG and its subscales are consistently correlated with other theoretically-relevant constructs. Higher scores (more negative attitudes) correlate significantly with high religiosity, lack of contact with gay men and lesbians, adherence to traditional sex-role attitudes, belief in a traditional family ideology, and high levels of dogmatism (Herek, 1987a, 1987b, 1988, 1994; Herek & Glunt, 1993; Herek & Capitanio, 1995, 1996)"'' [http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/html/atlg.html]

:and that:

:''"The strongest predictor of positive attitudes toward homosexuals was that the interviewee knew a gay man or lesbian. The correlation held across each demographic subset represented in the survey--sex, education level, age--bar one: political persuasion. [Conservative men and women]"'' [http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/articles/nowack.html]

An example of conservative views can also be found in the discussion of what conservatives call "[[homosexual recruitment]]", within a document released by the conservative Christian organization [[Alliance Defense Fund]] states:

:''The homosexual activist movement are driving an agenda that will severely limit the ability to live and practice the Gospel, whether it is in the boardroom, the classroom, halls of government, private organizations, and even in places of worship. In their relentless attempts to obtain special rights, that no other special interest group has, they are in the process of redefining the family, demanding not only 'tolerance' [...] but 'acceptance', and ultimately seeking to marginalize, censor, and punish those individuals who stand in the way of their multiple goals.<ref>[http://www.crministries.org/TTT/ABarrierToEvangelism.pdf Alliance Defense Fund "The Homosexual Legal Agenda: A Barrier To Evangelism"]</ref>''

As this statement illustrates, those who believe that a disapproving attitude toward homosexuality is a tenet of their religion can see efforts to abolish such attitudes as an attack on their religious freedom. Those who regard homosexuality as a sin or perversion can believe that acceptance of homosexual parents and homosexual marriage will redefine and diminish the institutions of family and marriage.

More generally, conservatives&mdash;by definition&mdash;prefer that institutions, traditions and values remain unchanged, and this has put many of them in opposition to increasing the cultural acceptance and legal rights of homosexuals.

===Violence===

{{main|Violence against gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and the transgendered}}

Gay people have been the target of violence for their sexuality in various cultures throughout history. The earliest state recorded to punish anti-gay violence with death was the Roman Empire under [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]], around 400 AD. Violence against gays reached its height [[History of Gays during the Holocaust|during the Holocaust]], when at least 15,000 gays were killed and many more imprisoned and institutionalised as insane. [[Violence against gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and the transgendered|Violence against homosexuals]] continues to occur today.

===Anti-gay speech===

{{main|Anti-gay slogan}}

Anti-gay slogans date back at least as far as [[Classical Greece]] 2500 years ago. These slogans have expressed numerous derogatory viewpoints against gays which have ranged from disrespectful to overtly insulting.

===Psychology and modification of sexual orientation===

:''Main articles: [[Homosexuality and psychology]], [[Reparative therapy]]''

In 1973, the (US) [[American Psychiatric Association]] voted to remove homosexuality from [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]. The decision was supported by a majority of the membership, though some criticized this as a political decision unsupported by any advances in psychiatric research. Nonetheless, many religious groups and other advocates, like [[National Association for Research and Therapy of Homosexuality]] (NARTH), believe that they can "heal or cure" homosexuality through [[reparative therapy]]. Many Western health and mental health professional organizations have concluded that this therapy is ineffective, unnecessary, and potentially harmful and that sexual orientation is unchangeable. Most notable for his dissent from this opinion is Dr. [[Robert Spitzer]]. Another study refuting the claims of reparative therapy proponents was done in 2001 by Dr. Ariel Shidlo and Dr. Michael Schroeder.

In many non-Western post-colonial countries, homosexual orientation is still considered to be a mental disorder and illness. In Moslem areas, this position is ascribed to the earlier adoption of European Victorian attitudes by the westernized elite, in areas where previously native traditions embraced same-sex relations. <ref>El-Rouayheb, Khaled, ''Before Homosexuality in the Arab-Islamic World,'' Chicago, 2005</ref>

===Stereotypes===

In [[Western culture]], gay men are often [[stereotype]]d as [[Effeminacy|effeminate]] or sometimes as hypermasculinized (''see [[homomasculinity]]''). Other stereotypes are the child molester in a position of moral authority (such as the pedophile priest or boy scout leader), and the muscle-bound prison rapist. Additional stereotypes surrounding gay male identity include hypersexualization, extreme care regarding personal appearance, and knowledge socially inappropriate for males, such as how to sew or decorate. Many of these stereotypes have led to the creation of the [[metrosexual]], a man who fits gay male stereotypes but identifies as heterosexual.

Lesbians are often stereotyped as being overly [[Masculinity|masculine]] or [[Butch and femme|butch]], as having been molested or raped at an early age, as being angry, having typically masculine knowledge (such as how to fix plumbing), and as extremely needy or codependent.

Bisexuals are often stereotyped as [[Promiscuity|promiscuous]], manipulative, and insincere.

===Blame for plagues and disasters===

The destruction of [[Sodom and Gomorrah]] as takes place in the [[Bible]] is often attributed to attempted homosexual rape, but this is disputed. Scholars have variously attributed the destruction to [[bestiality]], turning a blind eye to social injustice, or lack of hospitality.

Since the [[middle ages]], [[sodomites]] were blamed for "bringing down the wrath of [[God]]" upon the land, and their pleasures blamed for the periodic [[epidemics]] of disease which decimated the population. This "pollution" was thought to be cleansed by fire, as a result of which countless individuals were burned at the stake or run through with white-hot iron rods.

Since the end of the [[1980]]'s similar accusations have been made, inspired by the [[AIDS]] epidemic. In the years since, the epidemic has spread and now has many more heterosexual victims than homosexual.

Other contemporary American examples:

* [[Jerry Falwell]] made remarks interpreted as blaming "pagans, and the abortionists, and the [[feminists]], and the [[gays]] and the [[lesbians]] who are actively trying to make that an alternative lifestyle, the [[ACLU]], [[People for the American Way]]" for the [[September 11th]] attacks, but later apologized for his remarks. ([[Pat Robertson]] was also participating in the broadcast.)<ref>[http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/09/14/Falwell.apology/ CNN.com "Falwell apologizes to gays, feminists, lesbians"]</ref>

* Baptist Minister [[Fred Phelps]] blames homosexuals for the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11th attacks]] and his sect blames the Indian Ocean tsunami of December, 2004 on American and Swedish sodomites and fornicators in Thailand.<ref>[http://www.godhatesamerica.com/ghfmir/main/faq.html#Tsunami "What do you think about the Tsunami that hit Asia on December 26, 2004? Was it God's wrath? What about the children who were killed?", Westboro Baptist Church FAQ]</ref> Phelps has little if any support among the wider religious community.

===Association with child abuse and pedophilia===

Relations between adults and youths, both male and female, were practiced historically dating back to at least [[Ancient history|antiquity]], when they were reported among a number of cultures, among which the [[Celt]]ic, the [[Persia]]n and the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]]. ''See Plato's [[Phaedrus (dialogue)]] and Lucian's [[Lucian|''Erotes'']].'' The best documented, and perhaps the most formalized, being the Greek tradition, it is the one that has become emblematic of erotic relations between men and adolescent boys. The association of modern masculine desire for adolescent youths with Greek man/boy practices has been resuscitated periodically by various cultural movements such as the Italian Neo-Platonists (including [[Marsilio Ficino]]) and literary figures such as [[Oscar Wilde]] and [[Andre Gide]], and has continued into contemporary times. Invariably, each such instance has been met with alarm and accusations of corruption of the young.

Thus, some people fear exposing their children to homosexuals in unsupervised settings, lest they be [[child molestation|molested]], [[raped]], or [[Homosexual recruitment|recruited]] to be homosexuals themselves. The publicity surrounding the [[Roman Catholic Church sex abuse scandal]], which included many cases of pederastic relationships, has heightened these concerns. Many organizations focus on these concerns, drawing connections between homosexuality and pedophilia. <ref>[http://traditionalvalues.org/urban/one.php "Exposed: Homosexual Child Molesters" from Traditional Values Coalition]</ref>. According to a study commissioned by the [[United States Conference of Catholic Bishops]]<ref>[http://www.usccb.org/nrb/johnjaystudy/ "The Nature and Scope of the Problem of Sexual Abuse of Minors by Catholic Priests and Deacons in the United States" from United States Conference of Catholic Bishops]</ref>, under the auspices of the [[John Jay College of Criminal Justice]] and an all-lay review board headed by [[Illinois]] [[Appellate Court]] Justice Anne M. Burke, "81% of the reported victims of child sexual abuse by Catholic clergy were boys." The review board went on to conclude that, "the crisis was characterized by homosexual behavior," and in light of this, "the current crisis cannot be addressed without consideration of issues related to homosexuality." One of John Jay's researchers, Louis Schlesinger, argued, however, that the main problem was [[pedophilia]] or [[ephebophilia]], not sexual orientation and said that some men who are married to adult women are attracted to adolescent males.<ref>[http://www.catholicnews.com/data/abuse/abuse01.htm Filteau, Jerry, "Sex abuse report pays special attention to homosexual priests" from Catholic News Service]</ref>

A number of small-scale studies by Dr. Carole Jenny, Dr. A.W. Richard Sipe, and others have not found evidence that homosexuals are more likely to molest childen than heterosexuals.<ref>[http://www.usatoday.com/news/2002-07-15-church-gay_x.htm Elias, Marilyn, "Is homosexuality to blame for church scandal?" from USA Today]</ref><ref>[http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/html/facts_molestation.html "Facts About Homosexuality and Child Molestation" from UC Davis]</ref> One study by [[researcher]] Dr. Kurt Freund suggested a higher occurrence of pedophilia among homosexuals, but didn't indicate a greater likelihood to molest children.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=1556756&dopt=Abstract Freund, Kurt, "The proportions of heterosexual and homosexual pedophiles among sex offenders against children: an exploratory study"]</ref>

Some researchers, like [[Johns Hopkins University]] [[psychiatrist]] Dr. Frederick Berlin, say it's flawed to assume that men who molest young boys are attracted to adult men and say that attaction to children is a separate orientation of its own. Others, like [[psychotherapist]] Dr. A.W. Richard Sipe, also argue that the sexual deprivation that occurs in the [[priesthood]] could lead one to turn to children and that boys are more accessible to priests and other male authority figures than girls.<ref>[http://www.usatoday.com/news/2002-07-15-church-gay_x.htm Elias, Marilyn, "Is homosexuality to blame for church scandal?" from USA Today]</ref> A study by Dr. A. Nicholas Groth found that nearly half of the child sex offenders in his small sample were exclusively attracted to children. The other half regressed to children after finding trouble in adult relationships. No one in his sample was primarily attracted to same-sex adults<ref>{{cite book | title = Sexual Exploitation of Children: Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Crime of the Committee on the Judiciary House of Representatives (pp 106)| year = 2002 | publisher = University Press of the Pacific | id = 0898757401}}</ref>.

The question of whether it is even possible to change or direct a child's sexual orientation is a matter of sharp debate. ''See [[Environment, choice, and sexual orientation]]''

==Regions and historical periods==

===Ancient Greece===

{{Main|Homosexuality in ancient Greece}}

[[Image:Patrocluspederastyscene.jpg|thumb|150px|An image of [[Achilles and Patroclus]], presenting the mythological figures in the [[pederasty in Ancient Greece|pederastic]] context common to Greece of the 5th century BCE.]]

In [[Ancient Greece]] homoerotic practices (usually of a [[pederastic]] nature) were widely present, and integrated into the religion, education, philosophy and military culture. <ref>Dover, 1978, ''passim''</ref> The sexualized form of these relationships was the topic of vigorous debate. In particular, anal intercourse was condemned by many, including [[Plato]], as a form of [[hubris]] and faulted for dishonoring and feminizing the boys. Relations between adult males were generally ridiculed. [[Plato]] also believed that the chaste form of the relationship was the mark of an enlightened society, while only [[barbarians]] condemned it <ref>Plato, Symposium; 182c</ref>.

[[Athens]] and [[Sparta]] are both well known for encouraging pederastic relationships as part of a youth's education and socialization. In both societies, though, once a youth came of age he was expected to take on another youth as beloved, and eventually to marry and continue the family line.

:''See also [[Pederasty in ancient Greece]], [[Homosexuality in the militaries of ancient Greece]]''

===Ancient Israel===

Throughout most of the history of ancient [[Israel]], intercourse between males was condemned outright as an "abomination" and [[Mosaic Law]] demanded the death penalty for those men who "lie with a man as with a woman". <ref>[http://www.drbo.org/chapter/03020.htm (Leviticus 20:13)]</ref> Other aspects of same-sex relations were not discussed.

===Ancient Rome===

{{Main|Homosexuality in Ancient Rome}}

Roman attitudes toward same-sex relations varied over the centuries. In the early days of the [[Roman Republic]], pederasty was considered a degenerate Greek practice. As Greek attitudes gradually became accepted in Rome during the late Republic and early Empire, however, a form of same-sex relations emerged that was quite different from the Greek form. As men, particularly the [[pater familias]], wielded complete authority in Roman society, the Roman experience of same-sex relations is often characterized by master/slave-style interactions. Indeed, at the height of the [[Roman Empire]] the [[Lex Scatinia]] was promulgated, effectively banning relations (consensual or not), male prostitution, and sexual passivity involving free born boys and girls. <ref>[http://oregonstate.edu/~blakena/cs195/final/Other/Writing/RomanHomosexuality.html Roman Homosexuality]</ref> Slaves still were considered legitimate sexual partners, often if not always regardless of their wishes.

By the time the empire had been firmly established, many forms of sexual expression were tolerated. Though perhaps not the originator of the practice, the emperor [[Nero]] appears to have been the first Roman emperor to marry a male. According to Edward Gibbon, writing in 1776, of the first twelve emperors only Claudius was exclusively involved with women. All others took either boys or men as lovers.<ref>Edward Gibbon, ''The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire''</ref>

===China===

{{main|Homosexuality in China}}

In China, historical records tacitly assume bisexuality as the human norm.<ref>Crompton, Louis, ''Homosexuality and Civilization'', Harvard University, 2003</ref> Same sex practices have been documented there since the "Spring and Autumn Annals" period (parallel with Classical Greece) and its roots are found in the legend of China's origin, the reign of the Yellow Emperor, who, among his many inventions, is credited with being the first to take male bedmates. At the same time the practice was not in the mainstream of the culture, and was condemned for corrupting the judgement of rulers, as did relations with female concubines.

Attitudes have changed radically in the past hundred and fifty years, swinging from casual acceptance to antagonism to guarded acceptance again. The Chinese [[Psychiatrists]]’ Association removed [[homosexuality]] from the list of [[mental illnesses]] in April 2001. However, as scriptwriter and teacher Cui Zi’en, one of the few openly gay intellectuals in today's [[China]], points out that, in his country, it is still seen as a [[psychological disorder]]. "In the West, it’s frowned on to criticize homosexuals and even more to make them feel different," says Cui Zi’en, contrasting it with Chinese society which, "is changing, but there’ll always be people who’ll feel disgust."

===Early Christianity===

{{main|Homosexuality and Christianity}}

From its earliest days, [[Christianity]] followed the [[Hebrews|Hebrew]] tradition of condemnation of male sexual intercourse and certain forms of sexual relations between men and women, labeling both as ''[[sodomy]].'' The teachings of [[Jesus Christ]] encouraged a turning away from and forgiveness of sin, including those sins of sexual impurity. Jesus was known as a defender of those whose sexual sins were condemned by the [[Pharisees]]. At the same time, Jesus strongly upheld the [[Mosaic Law]] and urged those whose sexual sins were forgiven to, "go, and sin no more". <ref>[http://www.drbo.org/chapter/50008.htm John 8:3-11]</ref>

[[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]] was even more explicit in his condemnation of sinful behavior, including sodomy, saying, "Know you not that the unjust shall not possess the kingdom of God? Do not err: neither fornicators, nor idolaters, nor adulterers, nor the effeminate, nor liers with mankind, nor thieves, nor covetous, nor drunkards, nor railers, nor extortioners, shall possess the kingdom of God" <ref>[http://www.drbo.org/chapter/53006.htm 1 Corinthians 6:9-10]</ref>

===Christian Roman Empire/Byzantine Empire===

After the emperor [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]] ended the persecution of Christians throughout the [[Roman Empire]] and made [[Christianity]] the official state religion in the [[4th century]], Christian attitudes toward sexual behavior were soon incorporated into Roman Law. In the year [[528]], the emperor [[Justinian I]], responding to an outbreak of [[pederasty]] among the Christian clergy, issued a law which made [[castration]] the punishment for sodomy.<ref>[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/pwh/malalas.html Malalas]</ref>

===The Pacific basin===

The Bedamini people of [[New Guinea]] believe that semen is the main source of masculinity and strength. In consequence, the sharing of semen between men, particularly when there is an age gap, is seen as promoting growth throughout nature, while excessive heterosexual activities are seen as leading to decay and death. <ref>''Ritualized Homosexuality in Melanesia,'' Gilbert H. Herdt, ed. University of California Press, 1984</ref>

===The United States===

Modern attitudes towards same-sex attraction and sexuality have been determined by a number of different factors. Chief among these are the religious and the scientific establishment. On one hand, Christian dogma in recent times has been routinely interpreted as condeming same-sex relations. On the other, the medical establishment, as part of its professionalization during the course of the nineteenth century, used warnings against the newly diagnosed sexually deviant identity. <ref>Hatheway, Jay, The Gilded Age Construction of Modern American Homophobia, New York, 2003</ref>

====Sexuality and the state: Homosexuality as unpatriotic====

In the 1950s in the [[United States]], open homosexuality was taboo. Many politicians treated the homosexual as a symbol of antinationalism, construing masculinity as patriotism and marking the "unmasculine" homosexual as a threat to national security. This perceived connection between homosexuality and antinationalism was present in [[History of gays in Nazi Germany and the Holocaust|Nazi Germany]] and [[Gay rights in Russia|Soviet Russia]] as well, and appears in contemporary politics to this day{{fact}}.

[[Image:mcarthylist.jpg|thumb|200px|Joseph McCarthy holding what was supposedly a list of Communists.]]

Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]] used accusations of homosexuality as a [[smear tactic]] in his [[McCarthyism|anti-Communist crusade]], often combining the [[Red Scare]] with the Lavender Scare. On one occasion, he went so far as to announce to reporters, "If you want to be against McCarthy, boys, you've got to be either a Communist or a cocksucker."<ref>Cuordileone, K.A. "'Politics in an Age of Anxiety': Cold War Political Culture and the Crisis in American Masculinity, 1949-1960" ''The Journal of American History'' 87 (2) (2000): 515-545</ref> Historians such as Cuordileone have argued that, in linking Communism to homosexuality, McCarthy was playing off of prevalent anxieties about sexuality in order to gain support for his anti-Communist campaign.

Senator [[Kenneth S. Wherry|Kenneth Wherry]] likewise attempted to invoke some connection between homosexuality and antinationalism as, for example, when he said in an interview with [[Max Lerner]] that "You can't hardly separate homosexuals from subversives." Later in that same interview he draws the line between patriotic Americans and gay men: "But look Lerner, we're both Americans, aren't we? I say, let's get these fellows [closeted gay men in government positions] out of the government."<ref>Lerner, Max, ''The Unfinished Country: A Book of American Symbols'' Simon and Schuster, 1959 pp 313-316</ref>

There were other perceived connections between homosexuality and Communism. Wherry, for example, publicized fears that [[Joseph Stalin]] had obtained a list of closeted homosexuals in positions of power from [[Adolf Hitler]], which he believed Stalin intended to use to blackmail these men into working against the U.S. for the Soviet regime.<ref>Von Hoffman, Nicholas, ''Citizen Cohn'' Doubleday, 1988 pp 130</ref> Another version of this sentiment can be found in the [[1950]] report produced by a Senate committee headed by McCarthy titled "Employment of Homosexuals and Other Sex Perverts in Government" which states, in part, "As has been previously discussed in this report, the pervert is easy prey to the blackmailer... It is an accepted fact among intelligence agencies that espionage organizations the world over consider sex perverts who are in possession of or have access to confidential material to be prime targets where pressure can be exerted". <ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/assault/context/employment.html "Employment of Homosexuals and Other Sex Perverts in Government" from PBS Frontline]</ref> Ironically, McCarthy and [[Roy Cohn]] more often used the secrets of closeted gay American politicians as tools for blackmail than did foreign powers. <ref>Von Hoffman, Nicholas, ''Citizen Cohn'' Doubleday, 1988</ref>

There were sometimes actual [[Socialism and sexual orientation|connections]] between gay rights groups and radical leftists. [[Emma Goldman]], an anarchist, argued for treating gay people like any other person. The [[Mattachine Society]] had connections to American Communist parties. McCarthy, Wherry, Cohn, and the [[House Un-American Activities Committee]], however, did not appear especially interested in obvious homosexuals and leftists, but in weeding out the hidden subversives claimed to be planted in every branch of government.

====LGBT social movements====

Beginning in the 20th century, [[gay rights]] movements have led to changes in social acceptance and in the [[media portrayal of homosexuality]]. The legalization of [[same-sex marriage]] and non-gender-specific [[civil union]]s is one of the major goals of gay rights activism. (See [[:Category:LGBT civil rights]].)

Attitudes toward homosexuality have changed in western societies in the latter part of the [[20th century]], accompanied by a greater acceptance of gay men and women into both secular and religious institutions.

=====Criticisms of the LGBT civil rights movement=====

Some say the term 'LGBT civil rights' is a misnomer and an attempt to piggyback on the civil rights movement. Rev. [[Jesse Lee Peterson]], for example, called the comparison of the civil rights movement to the "gay rights movement" a "disgrace to a black American". He said that "homosexuality is not a civil right. What we have is a bunch of radical homosexuals trying to attach their agenda to the struggles of the 1960s", <ref>[http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0403/07/sm.02.html CNN Sunday Morning Transcripts March 7, 2004]</ref> while Jesse Jackson has said "Gays were never called three-fifths human in the Constitution." Gene Rivers, a Boston minister, has accused gays of "pimping" the civil rights movement. <ref>[http://www.blackcommentator.com/110/110_fr_gay_civil_rights.html Kimberly, Margaret, "Freedom Rider: Gay Rights, Civil Rights" at The Black Commentator]</ref><ref>[http://www.hrc.org/Template.cfm?Section=Home&CONTENTID=17806&TEMPLATE=/ContentManagement/ContentDisplay.cfm Pitts, Leonard Jr. "A Civil War Between Gays and Blacks" at Human Rights Campaign]</ref>

Some opponents of the movement, such as [[Ralph E. Reed, Jr.|Ralph Reed]], former executive director of the [[Christian Coalition]], say that gay people are seeking [[special rights]], not equal rights, and that the movement should not be referred to as a civil rights movement. They argue, for example, that in seeking the right to marry members of the same sex, gay people are seeking a special right for themselves and disregarding the fact that [[polygamy|polygamists]] and other groups defined by sexual behaviour do not have this right either. <ref>[http://facstaff.buffalostate.edu/netzhaec/gayagn2.htm Netzhammer, Mel, "'The Gay Agenda' and 'Gay Rights, Special Rights' and the Construction of a Homosexual Role" at Buffalo State]</ref>

====Statistics====

73% of the general public in the [[United States]] in 2001 knew someone who is [[gay]], [[lesbian]], or [[bisexual]] according to a study by the Kaiser Family Foundation. This is the result of a steady increase from 1983 when there were 24%, 43% in 1993, 55% in 1998, or 62% in 2000. The percentage of the general public who say there is more acceptance of [[LGBT|LGB]] people in 2001 than before was 64%. Acceptance was measured on many different levels &mdash; 87% of the general public would shop at a store owned by someone who is gay or lesbian all the way down to 46% of the general public would attend a [[church]] or [[synagogue]] where a [[minister]] or [[rabbi]] is openly gay or lesbian. 51% of the general public think that "[[homosexual behavior]]" is morally wrong. Males and people over 65 years old are more likely to think it is wrong. Among people who don't know someone who is LGB, 61% think the behavior is wrong. Broken down by religion, 60% of [[Evangelicalism|evangelical Christians]] think that it is wrong, whereas 11% with no [[religious affiliation]] are against it. 57% of the general public think that [[gays and lesbians]] experience a lot of [[prejudice]] and [[discrimination]], making it the group most believed to experience prejudice and discrimination. (African Americans come in second at 42%).<ref>[http://www.kff.org/kaiserpolls/3193-index.cfm Kaiser Family Foundation Poll: New Surveys on Experiences of Lesbians, Gays and Bisexuals and the Public's Views Related to Sexual Orientation]</ref>

In terms of support of public policies, according to the same 2001 study, 76% of the general public think that there should be laws to protect gay and lesbian people from job discrimination, 74% from housing discrimination, 73% for inheritance rights, 70% support health and other employee benefits for domestic partners, 68% support social security benefits, and 56% support GL people openly serving in the military. 73% favor [[sexual orientation]] being included in the hate crimes statutes. 39% support [[same-sex marriage]], while 47% support [[civil unions]], and 46% support [[gay adoption|adoption rights]].

A separate study shows that, in the United States, the younger generation is more supportive of [[gay rights]] than average. For example, a Kaiser Family Foundation study found that 18-24 year olds strongly supported gay rights in 2001. However, polling data also shows a trend among Americans in general toward rejection of homosexual-specific legal expansion of rights, especially homosexual marriage. A poll commissioned by CNN/USA Today Gallup in 2005 asked the question, "Do you think marriages between homosexuals should or should not be recognized by the law as valid, with the same rights as traditional marriages?" 56% said "should not be valid", while 39% said "should be valid", and 5% were unsure. <ref>[http://www.pollingreport.com/civil.htm CNN/USA Today/Gallup Poll]</ref>. In addition, eleven states rejected homosexual marriage in ballot initiatives during the [[2004]] elections.

====Law====

In the [[United States]], several judicial bodies have attempted to create a right to homosexual marriage based on their interpretations of state constitutions. To date, this approach has proven successful only in [[Massachusetts]] where homosexual marriage has been declared legal. In many other states, the notion of homosexual marriage has been put before the voters and rejected. In [[2004]], eleven states had referendum initiatives banning homosexual marriage on their ballots. The initiatives passed in all ([[Arkansas]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[Kentucky]], [[Michigan]], [[Mississippi]], [[Montana]], [[North Dakota]], [[Oklahoma]], [[Ohio]], [[Utah]] and [[Oregon]]).

==References==

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==See also==

*[[Gay agenda]]

*[[Homophobia]]

*[[Sociology of gender]]

[[Category:Sexual orientation and society]]

[[Category:Sociology]]

[[Category:Social philosophy]]