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Outside of insects, ''Wolbachia'' infects a variety of [[isopod]] species, [[spider]]s, [[mite]]s, and many species of filarial [[nematode]]s (a type of [[parasitic worm]]), including those causing [[onchocerciasis]] ("River Blindness") and [[elephantiasis]] in humans as well as [[heartworm]]s in dogs. Not only are these disease-causing filarial infected with ''Wolbachia'', but ''Wolbachia'' seem to play an inordinate role in these diseases. A large part of the pathogenicity of filarial nematodes is due to host immune response toward their ''Wolbachia''. Elimination of ''Wolbachia'' from filarial nematodes generally results in either death or sterility.<ref name="pmid12684759">{{cite journal |author=Hoerauf A, Mand S, Fischer K, ''et al'' |title=Doxycycline as a novel strategy against bancroftian filariasis-depletion of Wolbachia endosymbionts from Wuchereria bancrofti and stop of microfilaria production |journal=Med. Microbiol. Immunol. |volume=192 |issue=4 |pages=211–6 |year=2003 |pmid=12684759 |doi=10.1007/s00430-002-0174-6}}</ref> Consequently, current strategies for control of filarial nematode diseases include elimination of ''Wolbachia'' via the simple [[doxycycline]] antibiotic rather than far more toxic anti-nematode medications.<ref name="pmid15964448">{{cite journal |author=Taylor MJ, Makunde WH, McGarry HF, Turner JD, Mand S, Hoerauf A |title=Macrofilaricidal activity after doxycycline treatment of Wuchereria bancrofti: a double-blind, randomised placebo-controlled trial |journal=Lancet |volume=365 |issue=9477 |pages=2116–21 |year=2005 |pmid=15964448 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66591-9}}</ref>
Outside of insects, ''Wolbachia'' infects a variety of [[isopod]] species, [[spider]]s, [[mite]]s, and many species of filarial [[nematode]]s (a type of [[parasitic worm]]), including those causing [[onchocerciasis]] ("River Blindness") and [[elephantiasis]] in humans as well as [[heartworm]]s in dogs. Not only are these disease-causing filarial infected with ''Wolbachia'', but ''Wolbachia'' seem to play an inordinate role in these diseases. A large part of the pathogenicity of filarial nematodes is due to host immune response toward their ''Wolbachia''. Elimination of ''Wolbachia'' from filarial nematodes generally results in either death or sterility.<ref name="pmid12684759">{{cite journal |author=Hoerauf A, Mand S, Fischer K, ''et al'' |title=Doxycycline as a novel strategy against bancroftian filariasis-depletion of Wolbachia endosymbionts from Wuchereria bancrofti and stop of microfilaria production |journal=Med. Microbiol. Immunol. |volume=192 |issue=4 |pages=211–6 |year=2003 |pmid=12684759 |doi=10.1007/s00430-002-0174-6}}</ref> Consequently, current strategies for control of filarial nematode diseases include elimination of ''Wolbachia'' via the simple [[doxycycline]] antibiotic rather than far more toxic anti-nematode medications.<ref name="pmid15964448">{{cite journal |author=Taylor MJ, Makunde WH, McGarry HF, Turner JD, Mand S, Hoerauf A |title=Macrofilaricidal activity after doxycycline treatment of Wuchereria bancrofti: a double-blind, randomised placebo-controlled trial |journal=Lancet |volume=365 |issue=9477 |pages=2116–21 |year=2005 |pmid=15964448 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66591-9}}</ref>


The use of modified strains of ''Wolbachia'' to control mosquito populations has also been a topic of research.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Generation of a novel ''Wolbachia'' infection in ''Aedes albopictus'' (Asian tiger mosquito) via embryonic microinjection|journal=Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=35|year=2005|pages=903–910|first=Zhiyong|last=Xi|coauthors=Jeffry L. Dean, Cynthia Khoo, Stephen. L. Dobson|doi=10.1016/j.ibmb.2005.03.015}}</ref>
The use of modified strains of ''Wolbachia'' to control mosquito populations has also been a topic of research.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Generation of a novel ''Wolbachia'' infection in ''Aedes albopictus'' (Asian tiger mosquito) via embryonic microinjection|journal=Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=35|year=2005|pages=903–910|first=Zhiyong|last=Xi|coauthors=Jeffry L. Dean, Cynthia Khoo, Stephen. L. Dobson|doi=10.1016/j.ibmb.2005.03.015}}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==

Revision as of 02:19, 2 January 2009

Wolbachia
Transmission electron micrograph of Wolbachia within an insect cell.
Credit:Public Library of Science / Scott O'Neill
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Bacteria
Phylum:
Proteobacteria
Class:
Alpha Proteobacteria
Order:
Rickettsiales
Family:
Rickettsiaceae
Genus:
Wolbachia

Wolbachia is a genus of inherited bacteria which infects arthropod species, including a high proportion of insects. It is one of the world's most common parasitic microbes and is potentially the most common reproductive parasite in the biosphere. One study concludes that more than 16% of neotropical insect species carry this bacterium[1] and as many as 25-70% of all insect species are estimated to be potential hosts.[2]

History

The bacterium was first identified in 1924 by M. Hertig and S. B. Wolbach in Culex pipiens, a species of mosquito. Hertig formally described the genus 1936 as Wolbachia pipientis.[3] There was little interest after the discovery until 1971 when it was discovered that Culex mosquito eggs were killed when the sperm of Wolbachia infected males fertilized infection-free eggs (Cytoplasmic incompatibility).[4] It is today of considerable interest due to the nature of interactions and evolutionary consequences. It was discovered that Wolbachia makes males dispensable in 1990 by Richard Stouthamer of the University of Califonia, Riverside.[5]

Role in sexual differentiation of hosts

Within arthropods, Wolbachia is notable for significantly altering the reproductive capabilities of its hosts. These bacteria can infect many different types of organs, but are most notable for the infections of the testes and ovaries of their hosts.

Wolbachia are known to cause four different phenotypes:

  • Male killing: death of infected males.
  • Feminization: infected males develop as females or infertile pseudo-females.
  • Parthenogenesis: reproduction of infected females without males. Some scientists have suggested that parthenogenesis may always be attributable to the effects of Wolbachia.[6] An example of a parthenogenic species would be the Trichogramma wasp.[5]
  • Cytoplasmic incompatibility: the inability of Wolbachia-infected males to successfully reproduce with uninfected females or females infected with another Wolbachia strain.

Several species are so dependent on Wolbachia that they are unable to reproduce effectively without the bacteria in their bodies.[7]

Wolbachia are present in mature eggs, but not mature sperm. Only infected females pass the infection on to their offspring. It is thought that the phenotypes caused by Wolbachia, especially cytoplasmic incompatibility, may be important in promoting speciation.[8][9] Wolbachia can also cause misleading results in molecular cladistical analyses.[10]

Horizontal gene transfer and genomics

The first Wolbachia genome to be determined was that of one that infects Drosophila melanogaster flies[11]. This genome was sequenced at The Institute for Genomic Research in a collaboration between Jonathan Eisen and Scott O'Neill. The second Wolbachia genome to be determined was one that infects Brugia malayi nematodes[12]. Genome sequencing projects for several other Wolbachia strains are in progress. A complete copy of the Wolbachia genome sequence was found within the genome sequence of the fruit fly Drosophila ananassae and large segments were found in 7 other Drosophila species.[13]

In an application of DNA barcoding to the identification of species of Protocalliphora flies, it was found that several distinct morphospecies had identical cytochrome c oxidase I gene sequences, most likely through horizontal gene transfer by Wolbachia species as they jump across host species.[14]

Wolbachia has been found to confer Drosophila hosts with resistance against RNA virus infections.[15]

Applications to human health

Outside of insects, Wolbachia infects a variety of isopod species, spiders, mites, and many species of filarial nematodes (a type of parasitic worm), including those causing onchocerciasis ("River Blindness") and elephantiasis in humans as well as heartworms in dogs. Not only are these disease-causing filarial infected with Wolbachia, but Wolbachia seem to play an inordinate role in these diseases. A large part of the pathogenicity of filarial nematodes is due to host immune response toward their Wolbachia. Elimination of Wolbachia from filarial nematodes generally results in either death or sterility.[16] Consequently, current strategies for control of filarial nematode diseases include elimination of Wolbachia via the simple doxycycline antibiotic rather than far more toxic anti-nematode medications.[17]

The use of modified strains of Wolbachia to control mosquito populations has also been a topic of research.[18] Wolbachia can be used to control dengue and malaria by eliminating older insects that contain more parasites. Allowing younger insects to survive removes selection pressure for evolution of resistance[1].

See also

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References

  • Werren J.H. (1997). "Biology of Wolbachia" (PDF). Annual Review of Entomology. 42: 587–609. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.42.1.587. ISSN 0066-4170.

Footnotes

  1. ^ Werren, J.H. (1995). "Distribution of Wolbachia in neotropical arthropods". Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. B. 262: 147–204. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ Kozeka, Wieslaw J. (2007). "The Discovery of Wolbachia in Arthropods and Nematodes – A Historical Perspective". 5: 1–14. doi:10.1159/000104228. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |unused_data= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Text "Issues Infect Dis." ignored (help)
  3. ^ Hertig M & Wolbach SB (1924). "Studies on Rickettsia-like microorganisms in insects". Journal of Medical Research. 44: 329–74.
  4. ^ Yen, J. H. (1971). "New hypothesis of the cause of cytoplasmic incompatibility in Culex pipiens". Nature. 232: 657–658. doi:10.1038/232657a0. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  5. ^ a b Jonathan Knight (2001). "Meet the Herod Bug". Nature. 421: 12-14.
  6. ^ Gerard J. Tortora, Berdell R. Funke, Cristine L. Case (2007). Microbiology: an introduction. Pearson Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0805347909.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ^ Werren, John H. (2003). "Invasion of the Gender Benders: by manipulating sex and reproduction in their hosts, many parasites improve their own odds of survival and may shape the evolution of sex itself" (Reprint). Natural History. 112 (1): 58. ISSN 0028-0712. OCLC 1759475. Retrieved 2008-11-15. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  8. ^ Zimmer, Carl (2001). "Wolbachia: A Tale of Sex and Survival". Science. 292 (5519): 1093–5. doi:10.1126/science.292.5519.1093. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 11352061.
  9. ^ Telschow A, Flor M, Kobayashi Y, Hammerstein P, Werren JH. (2007). "Wolbachia-induced unidirectional cytoplasmic incompatibility and speciation: mainland-island model". PLoS_ONE. 2 (1): e701. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000701. ISSN (Electronic) 1932-6203 (Electronic). {{cite journal}}: Check |issn= value (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  10. ^ Johnstone RA, Hurst GDD (1996). "Maternally inherited male-killing microorganisms may confound interpretation of mitochondrial DNA variability". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 58 (4): 453–470. ISSN 0024-4066.
  11. ^ Wu M, Sun LV, Vamathevan J; et al. (2004). "Phylogenomics of the reproductive parasite Wolbachia pipientis wMel: a streamlined genome overrun by mobile genetic elements". PLoS Biol. 2 (3): E69. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020069. PMID 15024419. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  12. ^ Foster J, Ganatra M, Kamal I; et al. (2005). "The Wolbachia genome of Brugia malayi: endosymbiont evolution within a human pathogenic nematode". PLoS Biol. 3 (4): e121. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030121. PMID 15780005. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  13. ^ Dunning Hotopp, J.C, Clark ME, Oliveira DC, Foster JM, Fischer P, Torres MC, Giebel JD, Kumar N, Ishmael N, Wang S, Ingram J, Nene RV, Shepard J, Tomkins J, Richards S, Spiro DJ, Ghedin E, Slatko BE, Tettelin H, Werren J.H. (2007). "Widespread Lateral Gene Transfer from Intracellular Bacteria to Multicellular Eukaryotes" (5845:pages=1753-1756). Science. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |unused_data= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Text "volume317" ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ T.L. Whitworth, R.D. Dawson, H. Magalon, E. Baudry (2007) DNA barcoding cannot reliably identify species of the blowfly genus Protocalliphora (Diptera: Calliphoridae). Proceedings of the Royal Society B: 274: 1731-1739
  15. ^ Teixeira L, Ferreira A, Ashburner M (2008) The Bacterial Symbiont Wolbachia Induces Resistance to RNA Viral Infections in Drosophila melanogaster. PLoS Biol 6(12):e2 doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000002
  16. ^ Hoerauf A, Mand S, Fischer K; et al. (2003). "Doxycycline as a novel strategy against bancroftian filariasis-depletion of Wolbachia endosymbionts from Wuchereria bancrofti and stop of microfilaria production". Med. Microbiol. Immunol. 192 (4): 211–6. doi:10.1007/s00430-002-0174-6. PMID 12684759. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ^ Taylor MJ, Makunde WH, McGarry HF, Turner JD, Mand S, Hoerauf A (2005). "Macrofilaricidal activity after doxycycline treatment of Wuchereria bancrofti: a double-blind, randomised placebo-controlled trial". Lancet. 365 (9477): 2116–21. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66591-9. PMID 15964448.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ Xi, Zhiyong (2005). "Generation of a novel Wolbachia infection in Aedes albopictus (Asian tiger mosquito) via embryonic microinjection". Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 35: 903–910. doi:10.1016/j.ibmb.2005.03.015. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
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