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The Venus flytrap is a [[carnivorous plant]] that catches its prey with a trapping structure formed by the terminal portion of each of the plant's leaves, which is triggered by tiny hairs on their inner surfaces. A Venus flytrap's reactions can occur due to electric and mechanical, or movement-related, changes.<ref name="Volkov2011">{{Cite journal |last1=Volkov |first1=Alexander G. |last2=Pinnock |first2=Monique-Renée |last3=Lowe |first3=Dennell C. |last4=Gay |first4=Ma'Resha S. |last5=Markin |first5=Vladislav S. |date=15 January 2011 |title=Complete hunting cycle of ''Dionaea muscipula'': Consecutive steps and their electrical properties |journal=Journal of Plant Physiology |volume=168 |issue=2 |pages=109–120 |doi=10.1016/j.jplph.2010.06.007 |pmid=20667624 |bibcode=2011JPPhy.168..109V }}</ref><ref name="Volkov2013">{{Cite journal |last1=Volkov |first1=Alexander G. |last2=Harris II |first2=Shawn L. |last3=Vilfranc |first3=Chrystelle L. |last4=Murphy |first4=Veronica A. |last5=Wooten |first5=Joseph D. |last6=Paulicin |first6=Henoc |last7=Volkova |first7=Maia I. |last8=Markin |first8=Vladislav S. |date=1 January 2013 |title=Venus flytrap biomechanics: Forces in the ''Dionaea muscipula'' trap |journal=Journal of Plant Physiology |volume=170 |issue=1 |pages=25–32 |doi=10.1016/j.jplph.2012.08.009 |pmid=22959673 |bibcode=2013JPPhy.170...25V }}</ref><ref name="Sachse2020">{{Cite journal |last1=Sachse |first1=Renate |last2=Westermeier |first2=Anna |last3=Mylo |first3=Max |last4=Nadasdi |first4=Joey |last5=Bischoff |first5=Manfred |last6=Speck |first6=Thomas |last7=Poppinga |first7=Simon |date=7 July 2020 |title=Snapping mechanics of the Venus flytrap (''Dionaea muscipula'') |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=117 |issue=27 |pages=16035–16042 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2002707117 |doi-access=free |pmid=32571929 |pmc=7355038 |bibcode=2020PNAS..11716035S }}</ref> When an insect or spider crawling along the leaves contacts a hair, the trap prepares to close, snapping shut only if a second contact occurs within approximately twenty seconds of the first strike. The requirement of redundant triggering in this mechanism serves as a safeguard against wasting energy by trapping objects with no nutritional value, and the plant will only begin digestion after five more stimuli to ensure it has caught a live bug worthy of consumption. |
The Venus flytrap is a [[carnivorous plant]] that catches its prey with a trapping structure formed by the terminal portion of each of the plant's leaves, which is triggered by tiny hairs on their inner surfaces. A Venus flytrap's reactions can occur due to electric and mechanical, or movement-related, changes.<ref name="Volkov2011">{{Cite journal |last1=Volkov |first1=Alexander G. |last2=Pinnock |first2=Monique-Renée |last3=Lowe |first3=Dennell C. |last4=Gay |first4=Ma'Resha S. |last5=Markin |first5=Vladislav S. |date=15 January 2011 |title=Complete hunting cycle of ''Dionaea muscipula'': Consecutive steps and their electrical properties |journal=Journal of Plant Physiology |volume=168 |issue=2 |pages=109–120 |doi=10.1016/j.jplph.2010.06.007 |pmid=20667624 |bibcode=2011JPPhy.168..109V }}</ref><ref name="Volkov2013">{{Cite journal |last1=Volkov |first1=Alexander G. |last2=Harris II |first2=Shawn L. |last3=Vilfranc |first3=Chrystelle L. |last4=Murphy |first4=Veronica A. |last5=Wooten |first5=Joseph D. |last6=Paulicin |first6=Henoc |last7=Volkova |first7=Maia I. |last8=Markin |first8=Vladislav S. |date=1 January 2013 |title=Venus flytrap biomechanics: Forces in the ''Dionaea muscipula'' trap |journal=Journal of Plant Physiology |volume=170 |issue=1 |pages=25–32 |doi=10.1016/j.jplph.2012.08.009 |pmid=22959673 |bibcode=2013JPPhy.170...25V }}</ref><ref name="Sachse2020">{{Cite journal |last1=Sachse |first1=Renate |last2=Westermeier |first2=Anna |last3=Mylo |first3=Max |last4=Nadasdi |first4=Joey |last5=Bischoff |first5=Manfred |last6=Speck |first6=Thomas |last7=Poppinga |first7=Simon |date=7 July 2020 |title=Snapping mechanics of the Venus flytrap (''Dionaea muscipula'') |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=117 |issue=27 |pages=16035–16042 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2002707117 |doi-access=free |pmid=32571929 |pmc=7355038 |bibcode=2020PNAS..11716035S }}</ref> When an insect or spider crawling along the leaves contacts a hair, the trap prepares to close, snapping shut only if a second contact occurs within approximately twenty seconds of the first strike. The requirement of redundant triggering in this mechanism serves as a safeguard against wasting energy by trapping objects with no nutritional value, and the plant will only begin digestion after five more stimuli to ensure it has caught a live bug worthy of consumption. |
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There are two steps, which are a closed and locked state, that a Venus flytrap undergoes after its open state and before [[digestion]], which differ due to the formation of the trap.<ref name="Volkov2011" /><ref name="Volkov2013" /><ref name="Sachse2020" /> A closed trap occurs when the two lobes close or catch prey.<ref name="Volkov2011" /><ref name="Volkov2013" /><ref name="Sachse2020" /> A locked trap occurs when the cilia further trap the prey.<ref name="Volkov2011" /><ref name="Volkov2013" /> The trap can possess a strength of four [[Newton (unit)| |
There are two steps, which are a closed and locked state, that a Venus flytrap undergoes after its open state and before [[digestion]], which differ due to the formation of the trap.<ref name="Volkov2011" /><ref name="Volkov2013" /><ref name="Sachse2020" /> A closed trap occurs when the two lobes close or catch prey.<ref name="Volkov2011" /><ref name="Volkov2013" /><ref name="Sachse2020" /> A locked trap occurs when the cilia further trap the prey.<ref name="Volkov2011" /><ref name="Volkov2013" /> The trap can possess a strength of four [[Newton (unit)|]].<ref name="Volkov2013" /> In addition, the [[Cilium|cilia]] can further hinder a creature's ability to escape.<ref name="Volkov2011" /><ref name="Volkov2013" /> |
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The mechanism is so highly specialized that it can distinguish between living prey and non-prey stimuli, such as falling raindrops;<ref name="PRS">{{cite book |first1=Peter H. |last1=Raven |first2=Ray Franklin |last2=Evert |first3=Susan E.|last3=Eichhorn|title=Biology of Plants|url=https://archive.org/details/biologyofplants00rave_0 |url-access=registration |edition=7th |publisher= W.H. Freeman and Company |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7167-1007-3 |oclc=56051064}}</ref> two trigger hairs must be touched in succession within 20 seconds of each other or one hair touched twice in rapid succession,<ref name="PRS"/> whereupon the lobes of the trap will snap shut, typically in about one-tenth of a second.<ref name="Forterre2005">{{cite journal |last1=Forterre |first1=Yoël |first2=Jan M. |last2=Skotheim |first3=Jacques |last3=Dumais |first4=L. |last4=Mahadevan |date=27 January 2005 |url=http://www.oeb.harvard.edu/faculty/dumais/Publications/Nature2005.pdf |title=How the Venus flytrap snaps |journal=Nature |volume=433 |pages=421–425 |doi=10.1038/nature03185 |pmid=15674293 |issue=7024 |bibcode=2005Natur.433..421F |s2cid=4340043 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071202201809/http://www.oeb.harvard.edu/faculty/dumais/Publications/Nature2005.pdf |archivedate=2 December 2007}}</ref> |
The mechanism is so highly specialized that it can distinguish between living prey and non-prey stimuli, such as falling raindrops;<ref name="PRS">{{cite book |first1=Peter H. |last1=Raven |first2=Ray Franklin |last2=Evert |first3=Susan E.|last3=Eichhorn|title=Biology of Plants|url=https://archive.org/details/biologyofplants00rave_0 |url-access=registration |edition=7th |publisher= W.H. Freeman and Company |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7167-1007-3 |oclc=56051064}}</ref> two trigger hairs must be touched in succession within 20 seconds of each other or one hair touched twice in rapid succession,<ref name="PRS"/> whereupon the lobes of the trap will snap shut, typically in about one-tenth of a second.<ref name="Forterre2005">{{cite journal |last1=Forterre |first1=Yoël |first2=Jan M. |last2=Skotheim |first3=Jacques |last3=Dumais |first4=L. |last4=Mahadevan |date=27 January 2005 |url=http://www.oeb.harvard.edu/faculty/dumais/Publications/Nature2005.pdf |title=How the Venus flytrap snaps |journal=Nature |volume=433 |pages=421–425 |doi=10.1038/nature03185 |pmid=15674293 |issue=7024 |bibcode=2005Natur.433..421F |s2cid=4340043 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071202201809/http://www.oeb.harvard.edu/faculty/dumais/Publications/Nature2005.pdf |archivedate=2 December 2007}}</ref> |
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Plant arithmetic is a form of plant cognition whereby plants appear to perform arithmetic operations – a form of number sense in plants. Some such plants include the Venus flytrap and Arabidopsis thaliana.
Arithmetic by species
[edit]Venus flytrap
[edit]
The Venus flytrap can count to two and five in order to trap and then digest its prey.[1][2]
The Venus flytrap is a carnivorous plant that catches its prey with a trapping structure formed by the terminal portion of each of the plant's leaves, which is triggered by tiny hairs on their inner surfaces. A Venus flytrap's reactions can occur due to electric and mechanical, or movement-related, changes.[3][4][5] When an insect or spider crawling along the leaves contacts a hair, the trap prepares to close, snapping shut only if a second contact occurs within approximately twenty seconds of the first strike. The requirement of redundant triggering in this mechanism serves as a safeguard against wasting energy by trapping objects with no nutritional value, and the plant will only begin digestion after five more stimuli to ensure it has caught a live bug worthy of consumption.
There are two steps, which are a closed and locked state, that a Venus flytrap undergoes after its open state and before digestion, which differ due to the formation of the trap.[3][4][5] A closed trap occurs when the two lobes close or catch prey.[3][4][5] A locked trap occurs when the cilia further trap the prey.[3][4] The trap can possess a strength of four newtons.[4] In addition, the cilia can further hinder a creature's ability to escape.[3][4]
The mechanism is so highly specialized that it can distinguish between living prey and non-prey stimuli, such as falling raindrops;[6] two trigger hairs must be touched in succession within 20 seconds of each other or one hair touched twice in rapid succession,[6] whereupon the lobes of the trap will snap shut, typically in about one-tenth of a second.[7]
The number of days that the trap remains closed will depend on whether or not the plant has caught prey.[3] Furthermore, the size of the prey can affect the number of days needed for digestion.[3] If a creature is too small, then the Venus flytrap has the ability to release it, which means that it can start the stage of becoming semi-open.[3][4] The transition from closed to open will take two days and can result after the plant has finished digesting or realizing it has not caught anything worthwhile.[3][4] One day will be needed to become semi-open, which creates a concave look, and the other day will allow the Venus flytrap to become fully open, which creates a convex look.[3][4] The angle of a Venus flytrap's lobes when they are open can be impacted by the water within it.[5]
Arabidopsis thaliana
[edit]
Arabidopsis thaliana in effect performs division to control starch use at night.[8]
Most plants accumulate starch by day, then metabolize it at a fixed rate during night time. However, if the onset of darkness is unusually early, Arabidopsis thaliana reduces its use of starch by an amount that effectively requires division.[9] However, there are alternative explanations,[10] such as feedback control by sensing the amount of soluble sugars left.[11] As of 2015, open questions remain.[12]
See also
[edit]- Embodied cognition – Interdisciplinary theory
- Plant cognition – Proposed cognition of plants
- Plant communication – Communication between plants and other organisms
- Plant perception (physiology) – Plants interaction to environment
- Number sense in animals
- Numerical cognition – Study of numerical and mathematical abilities
References
[edit]- ^ Böhm, Jennifer; Scherzer, Sönke; Krol, Elzbieta; Kreuzer, Ines; von Meyer, Katharina; Lorey, Christian; Mueller, Thomas D.; Shabala, Lana; Monte, Isabel; Solano, Roberto; Al-Rasheid, Khaled A.S.; Rennenberg, Heinz; Shabala, Sergey; Neher, Erwin; Hedrich, Rainer (February 2016). "The Venus Flytrap Dionaea muscipula Counts Prey-Induced Action Potentials to Induce Sodium Uptake". Current Biology. 26 (3): 286–295. Bibcode:2016CBio...26..286B. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2015.11.057. PMC 4751343. PMID 26804557.
- ^ "Plants count to five". Nature. 529 (7587): 440. 2016. doi:10.1038/529440a. S2CID 49905733.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Volkov, Alexander G.; Pinnock, Monique-Renée; Lowe, Dennell C.; Gay, Ma'Resha S.; Markin, Vladislav S. (15 January 2011). "Complete hunting cycle of Dionaea muscipula: Consecutive steps and their electrical properties". Journal of Plant Physiology. 168 (2): 109–120. Bibcode:2011JPPhy.168..109V. doi:10.1016/j.jplph.2010.06.007. PMID 20667624.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Volkov, Alexander G.; Harris II, Shawn L.; Vilfranc, Chrystelle L.; Murphy, Veronica A.; Wooten, Joseph D.; Paulicin, Henoc; Volkova, Maia I.; Markin, Vladislav S. (1 January 2013). "Venus flytrap biomechanics: Forces in the Dionaea muscipula trap". Journal of Plant Physiology. 170 (1): 25–32. Bibcode:2013JPPhy.170...25V. doi:10.1016/j.jplph.2012.08.009. PMID 22959673.
- ^ a b c d Sachse, Renate; Westermeier, Anna; Mylo, Max; Nadasdi, Joey; Bischoff, Manfred; Speck, Thomas; Poppinga, Simon (7 July 2020). "Snapping mechanics of the Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula)". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 117 (27): 16035–16042. Bibcode:2020PNAS..11716035S. doi:10.1073/pnas.2002707117. PMC 7355038. PMID 32571929.
- ^ a b Raven, Peter H.; Evert, Ray Franklin; Eichhorn, Susan E. (2005). Biology of Plants (7th ed.). W.H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 978-0-7167-1007-3. OCLC 56051064.
- ^ Forterre, Yoël; Skotheim, Jan M.; Dumais, Jacques; Mahadevan, L. (27 January 2005). "How the Venus flytrap snaps" (PDF). Nature. 433 (7024): 421–425. Bibcode:2005Natur.433..421F. doi:10.1038/nature03185. PMID 15674293. S2CID 4340043. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 December 2007.
- ^ Ledford, Heidi (24 June 2013). "Plants perform molecular maths". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2013.13251. S2CID 124849485.
- ^ Scialdone, Antonio; Mugford, Sam T; Feike, Doreen; Skeffington, Alastair; Borrill, Philippa; Graf, Alexander; Smith, Alison M; Howard, Martin (25 June 2013). "Arabidopsis plants perform arithmetic division to prevent starvation at night". eLife. 2: e00669. arXiv:1306.5148. doi:10.7554/eLife.00669. PMC 3691572. PMID 23805380.
- ^ Webb, Alex A. R.; Satake, Akiko (5 March 2015). "Understanding Circadian Regulation of Carbohydrate Metabolism in Arabidopsis Using Mathematical Models". Plant and Cell Physiology. 56 (4): 586–593. doi:10.1093/pcp/pcv033. PMID 25745029.
- ^ Feugier, François G.; Satake, Akiko (2013). "Dynamical feedback between circadian clock and sucrose availability explains adaptive response of starch metabolism to various photoperiods". Frontiers in Plant Science. 3: 305. doi:10.3389/fpls.2012.00305. PMC 3544190. PMID 23335931.
- ^ Scialdone, Antonio; Howard, Martin (31 March 2015). "How plants manage food reserves at night: quantitative models and open questions". Frontiers in Plant Science. 6: 204. doi:10.3389/fpls.2015.00204. PMC 4379750. PMID 25873925.