Physical abuse: Difference between revisions

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'''Physical abuse''' is any intentional act causing [[injury]], [[Physical trauma|trauma]], [[bodily harm]] or other physical [[suffering]] to another person or [[animal abuse|animal]] by way of bodily contact.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Merskey |first=H. |date=April 1990 |title=Pain and Pleasure. A Study of Bodily Feelings |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3959(90)91120-8 |journal=Pain |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=123 |doi=10.1016/0304-3959(90)91120-8 |s2cid=53180841 |issn=0304-3959 |access-date=2023-03-18 |archive-date=2023-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322161918/https://journals.lww.com/pain/Citation/1990/04000/Pain_and_Pleasure__A_Study_of_Bodily_Feelings.20.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> Physical abuse is a type of abuse that involves physical violence, such as [[Strike (attack)|hitting]], [[Kick|kicking]], pushing, [[biting]], [[Strangling|choking]], throwing objects, and using [[Weapon|weapons]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=DeKeseredy |first1=Walter S. |last2=Saunders |first2=Daniel G. |last3=Schwartz |first3=Martin D. |last4=Alvi |first4=Shahid |date=April 1997 |title=The meanings and motives for women's use of violence in Canadian college dating relationships: Results from a national survey |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02732173.1997.9982160 |journal=Sociological Spectrum |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=199–222 |doi=10.1080/02732173.1997.9982160 |issn=0273-2173 |access-date=2023-03-18 |archive-date=2023-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322161925/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02732173.1997.9982160?cookieSet=1 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Oladimeji |first1=Oladepo |last2=Bidemi |first2=Yusuf Oyindamola |last3=Olufisayo |first3=John-Akinola Yetunde |last4=Sola |first4=Arulogun Oyedunni |date=2010-09-22 |title=Prostate Cancer Awareness, Knowledge, and Screening Practices among Older Men in Oyo State, Nigeria |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2190/iq.30.3.g |journal=International Quarterly of Community Health Education |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=271–286 |doi=10.2190/iq.30.3.g |pmid=20860984 |s2cid=34022288 |issn=0272-684X}}</ref> Physical abuse also includes using restraints or confinement, such as tying someone up, locking them in a room, or restraining them with drugs or [[Alcohol (drug)|alcohol]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Acoca |first=Leslie |date=October 1998 |title=Outside/Inside: The Violation of American Girls at Home, on the Streets, and in the Juvenile Justice System |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0011128798044004006 |journal=Crime & Delinquency |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=561–589 |doi=10.1177/0011128798044004006 |s2cid=145483583 |issn=0011-1287}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=DiIulio |first1=John J. |last2=Zimring |first2=Franklin E. |last3=Hawkins |first3=Gordon |date=1995 |title=Incapacitation: Penal Confinement and the Restraint of Crime |journal=Political Science Quarterly |volume=110 |issue=3 |pages=470 |doi=10.2307/2152582 |jstor=2152582 |issn=0032-3195 }}</ref> Physical abuse can also include withholding basic needs, such as food, clothing, or medical care. In addition to the physical injuries caused by physical abuse, it can also lead to psychological trauma, such as [[fear]], [[anxiety]], [[Depression (mood)|depression]], and [[post-traumatic stress disorder]].<ref>{{Citation |last1=Young |first1=Bruce H. |title=Cognitive-Behavioral Group Treatment for Disaster-Related PTSD |date=2020-03-25 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203778166-9 |work=Group Treatments for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder |pages=149–200 |access-date=2023-03-18 |publisher=Routledge |last2=Ruzek |first2=Josef I. |last3=Ford |first3=Julian D. |doi=10.4324/9780203778166-9 |isbn=9780203778166 |s2cid=216302855 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Araújo |first1=Liubiana Arantes de |last2=Veloso |first2=Cássio Frederico |last3=Souza |first3=Matheus de Campos |last4=Azevedo |first4=João Marcos Coelho de |last5=Tarro |first5=Giulio |date=July 2021 |title=The potential impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on child growth and development: a systematic review |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jped.2020.08.008 |journal=Jornal de Pediatria |volume=97 |issue=4 |pages=369–377 |doi=10.1016/j.jped.2020.08.008 |pmid=32980318 |pmc=7510529 |issn=0021-7557 |access-date=2023-03-18 |archive-date=2023-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322161925/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0021755720302096?via%3Dihub |url-status=live }}</ref> Physical abuse can occur in any relationship, including [[Domestic violence|those between family members]], partners, and caregivers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Li-Ching |last2=Kotch |first2=Jonathan B. |last3=Cox |first3=Christine E. |date=October 2004 |title=Child Maltreatment in Families Experiencing Domestic Violence |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/vivi.19.5.573.63682 |journal=Violence and Victims |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=573–591 |doi=10.1891/vivi.19.5.573.63682 |pmid=15844726 |s2cid=26319138 |issn=0886-6708}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bowlby |first=John |date=March 1984 |title=Violence in the family as a disorder of the attachment and caregiving systems |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01255416 |journal=The American Journal of Psychoanalysis |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=9–27 |doi=10.1007/bf01255416 |pmid=6731661 |s2cid=7438293 |issn=0002-9548}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Salzinger |first1=Suzanne |last2=Feldman |first2=Richard S. |last3=Ng-Mak |first3=Daisy S. |last4=Mojica |first4=Elena |last5=Stockhammer |first5=Tanya |last6=Rosario |first6=Margaret |date=2002 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/a:1013656906303 |journal=Journal of Family Violence |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=23–52 |doi=10.1023/a:1013656906303 |s2cid=10204386 |issn=0885-7482 |title=Effects of Partner Violence and Physical Child Abuse on Child Behavior}}</ref> It can also occur in institutional settings, such as nursing homes, schools, and prisons. Physical abuse can have long-term physical, psychological, and social consequences, and can even be fatal.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kilpatrick |first=Dean G. |date=March 2004 |title=Interpersonal Violence and Public Policy: What about the Victims? |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-720x.2004.tb00450.x |journal=The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=73–81 |doi=10.1111/j.1748-720x.2004.tb00450.x |pmid=15152428 |s2cid=41643966 |issn=1073-1105}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dahlberg |first1=Linda L. |last2=Krug |first2=Etienne G. |date=June 2006 |title=Violence a global public health problem |journal=Ciência & Saúde Coletiva |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=277–292 |doi=10.1590/s1413-81232006000200007 |s2cid=7173162 |issn=1413-8123|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Physical abuse is also said to be a type of abuse that involves the use of physical force against a person or animal.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Xing |first1=Kai |last2=Jiao |first2=Mingli |last3=Ma |first3=Hongkun |last4=Qiao |first4=Hong |last5=Hao |first5=Yanhua |last6=Li |first6=Ye |last7=Gao |first7=Lijun |last8=Sun |first8=Hong |last9=Kang |first9=Zheng |last10=Liang |first10=Libo |last11=Wu |first11=Qunhong |date=2015-11-16 |title=Physical Violence against General Practitioners and Nurses in Chinese Township Hospitals: A Cross-Sectional Survey |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=e0142954 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0142954 |pmid=26571388 |pmc=4646672 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1042954X |issn=1932-6203|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Krnjacki |first1=Lauren |last2=Emerson |first2=Eric |last3=Llewellyn |first3=Gwynnyth |last4=Kavanagh |first4=Anne M. |date=February 2016 |title=Prevalence and risk of violence against people with and without disabilities: findings from an Australian population‐based study |journal=Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=16–21 |doi=10.1111/1753-6405.12498 |pmid=26714039 |s2cid=9522628 |issn=1326-0200 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This is done in order to cause physical pain, injury, or other physical suffering. Physical abuse can involve hitting, kicking, punching, burning, or otherwise harming a person or animal. It can also include the use of weapons or other objects to cause harm. Physical abuse is a crime and should be reported to the authorities. It is important to remember that any kind of physical violence is unacceptable and should not be tolerated. In most cases, children are the victims of physical abuse, but adults can also be victims, as in cases of [[domestic violence]] or [[workplace aggression]]. Alternative terms sometimes used include [[assault|physical assault]] or [[physical violence]], and may also include [[sexual abuse]]. Physical abuse may involve more than one abuser, and more than one victim.

== Causes ==

Abusive acts toward children can often result from parents' attempts at [[child discipline]] through excessive [[corporal punishment]].<ref name="Humane2">[https://web.archive.org/web/20110316155856/http://www.americanhumane.org/children/stop-child-abuse/fact-sheets/child-physical-abuse.html "Child physical abuse".] American Humane Association.</ref><ref name="WebMD2">Giardino, A.P.; Giardino, E.R. (12 December 2008). [http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/915664-overview "Child Abuse & Neglect: Physical Abuse".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111202052400/http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/915664-overview |date=2011-12-02 }} ''WebMD''.</ref> A number of causes of [[Child abuse#Physical abuse|physical abuse against children]] have been identified, the most common of which, according to Mash and Wolfe, being:

* many abusive and neglectful parents have had little exposure to positive parental models and supports.

* there is often a greater degree of stress in the family environment.

* information-processing disturbances may cause maltreating parents to misperceive or mislabel their child's behavior, which leads to inappropriate responses.

* there is often a lack of awareness or understanding of developmentally appropriate expectations.<ref name=Mash />

Abusive acts toward children can take many forms, including physical, emotional, and sexual abuse.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carson |first1=David K. |last2=Foster |first2=Jennifer M. |last3=Tripathi |first3=Nishi |date=2013-09-01 |title=Child Sexual Abuse in India: Current Issues and Research |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s12646-013-0198-6 |journal=Psychological Studies |language=en |volume=58 |issue=3 |pages=318–325 |doi=10.1007/s12646-013-0198-6 |s2cid=255762875 |issn=0974-9861}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Moeller |first1=Tamerra P. |last2=Bachmann |first2=Gloria A. |last3=Moeller |first3=James R. |date=1993-09-01 |title=The combined effects of physical, sexual, and emotional abuse during childhood: Long-term health consequences for women |journal=Child Abuse & Neglect |language=en |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=623–640 |doi=10.1016/0145-2134(93)90084-I |pmid=8221217 |issn=0145-2134|doi-access=free }}</ref> The causes of such abuse can vary widely, depending on the individual involved. 1. Poor Mental Health: Poor mental health can be a major factor in why some people abuse children. Mental health issues such as depression, anxiety, and substance abuse can lead to a lack of impulse control, which can in turn lead to abusive behavior.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schnittker |first1=Jason |last2=Massoglia |first2=Michael |last3=Uggen |first3=Christopher |date=December 2012 |title=Out and Down: Incarceration and Psychiatric Disorders |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022146512453928 |journal=Journal of Health and Social Behavior |language=en |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=448–464 |doi=10.1177/0022146512453928 |pmid=23197484 |s2cid=18970611 |issn=0022-1465}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Dodge |first1=Kenneth A. |title=Toward a Dynamic Developmental Model of the Role of Parents and Peers in Early Onset Substance Use |date=2006-03-13 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511616259.006 |work=Families Count |pages=104–132 |access-date=2023-03-23 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |last2=Malone |first2=Patrick S. |last3=Lansford |first3=Jennifer E. |last4=Miller-Johnson |first4=Shari |last5=Pettit |first5=Gregory S. |last6=Bates |first6=John E.|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511616259.006 |isbn=9780521847537 }}</ref> Additionally, people with mental health issues may have difficulty regulating their emotions, leading to outbursts of anger and frustration that can be directed toward children. 2. Trauma: Trauma can be another factor in abusive behavior. People who have experienced traumatic events, such as abuse themselves, may be more likely to engage in abusive behavior to others. Additionally, people who have experienced traumatic events may be more likely to have difficulty managing their emotions, which can lead to outbursts of anger and abuse. 3. Lack of Knowledge: People who lack knowledge of how to properly care for children may be more likely to engage in abusive behavior.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Whiting |first1=Jason B. |last2=Lee |first2=Robert E. |date=July 2003 |title=Voices From the System: A Qualitative Study of Foster Children's Stories |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2003.00288.x |journal=Family Relations |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=288–295 |doi=10.1111/j.1741-3729.2003.00288.x |issn=0197-6664}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Van Dam |first=Carla |date=2013-12-19 |title=Identifying Child Molesters |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315821658 |doi=10.4324/9781315821658|isbn=9781315821658 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Regan |first=Linda |date=January 2003 |title=Child maltreatment in the United Kingdom: a study of the prevalence of child abuse and neglect, by Pat Cawson, Corinne Wattam, Sue Brooker and Graham Kelly, NSPCC, London, 2000. 185pp. ISBN 1-84228-006-6 (Pbk) |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/car.762 |journal=Child Abuse Review |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=67–69 |doi=10.1002/car.762 |issn=0952-9136}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Wolfe |first1=David A. |last2=Jaffe |first2=Peter G. |last3=Crooks |first3=Claire V. |date=2017-10-16 |title=Adolescent Risk Behaviors |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.12987/9780300127447 |doi=10.12987/9780300127447|isbn=9780300127447 |s2cid=246110414 }}</ref> People who are unfamiliar with child development and child psychology may not understand the best ways to discipline and care for children, leading to abuse. 4. Stress: Stress can be a major factor in why some people abuse children. Stress from work, financial pressures, or relationship issues can lead to outbursts of frustration and anger that are directed at children. 5. Substance Abuse: Substance abuse can also be a factor in why some people abuse children. A person who is under the influence of drugs or alcohol may be more likely to engage in abusive behavior, as their judgment and impulse control may be impaired.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schramm-Sapyta |first1=Nicole L. |last2=Walker |first2=Q. David |last3=Caster |first3=Joseph M. |last4=Levin |first4=Edward D. |last5=Kuhn |first5=Cynthia M. |date=2009-06-23 |title=Are adolescents more vulnerable to drug addiction than adults? Evidence from animal models |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00213-009-1585-5 |journal=Psychopharmacology |volume=206 |issue=1 |pages=1–21 |doi=10.1007/s00213-009-1585-5 |pmid=19547960 |pmc=3025448 |issn=0033-3158}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tice |first1=Dianne M. |last2=Bratslavsky |first2=Ellen |last3=Baumeister |first3=Roy F. |date=2001 |title=Emotional distress regulation takes precedence over impulse control: If you feel bad, do it! |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.80.1.53 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=80 |issue=1 |pages=53–67 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.80.1.53 |pmid=11195891 |s2cid=10596913 |issn=1939-1315}}</ref> 6. Power and Control: Some people may engage in abusive behavior as a way to gain power and control over a child. Abusive behavior can be used to exert dominance and control over a child, which can be particularly damaging in the long-term.

'''Effects of abusive acts toward children:''' The effects of abusive acts toward children can be far-reaching and long-lasting. Abuse can cause both physical and psychological harm to a child, which can have effects that last long into adulthood.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mullen |first1=P. E. |last2=Martin |first2=J. L. |last3=Anderson |first3=J. C. |last4=Romans |first4=S. E. |last5=Herbison |first5=G. P. |date=1996-01-01 |title=The long-term impact of the physical, emotional, and sexual abuse of children: A community study |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0145-2134%2895%2900112-3 |journal=Child Abuse & Neglect |language=en |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=7–21 |doi=10.1016/0145-2134(95)00112-3 |pmid=8640429 |issn=0145-2134}}</ref> Physical Effects: Physical effects of abuse can include physical injury, such as bruises, broken bones, and other physical trauma.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mechanic |first1=Mindy B. |last2=Weaver |first2=Terri L. |last3=Resick |first3=Patricia A. |date=October 2008 |title=Risk Factors for Physical Injury Among Help-Seeking Battered Women: An Exploration of Multiple Abuse Dimensions |journal=Violence Against Women |language=en |volume=14 |issue=10 |pages=1148–1165 |doi=10.1177/1077801208323792 |issn=1077-8012 |pmc=2977914 |pmid=18757347}}</ref> In extreme cases, physical abuse can even result in death. Psychological Effects: Psychological effects of abuse can include depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, difficulty with relationships, and low self-esteem.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baldry |first=Anna C. |date=2003-04-01 |title="Stick and Stones Hurt my Bones but His Glance and Words Hurt More": The Impact of Psychological Abuse and Physical Violence by Current and Former Partners on Battered Women in Italy |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14999013.2003.10471178 |journal=International Journal of Forensic Mental Health |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=47–57 |doi=10.1080/14999013.2003.10471178 |s2cid=145531659 |issn=1499-9013}}</ref> Abused children may also develop eating disorders, substance abuse problems, and suicidal thoughts or behaviors.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Burgić Radmanović |first1=Marija |title=Comorbidity in Children and Adolescents with ADHD |date=2021-11-24 |work=ADHD - From Etiology to Comorbidity |publisher=IntechOpen |last2=Burgić |first2=Sanela-Sanja|doi=10.5772/intechopen.94527 |isbn=978-1-83962-475-9 |s2cid=229413203 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wonderlich |first1=Stephen |last2=Crosby |first2=Ross |last3=Mitchell |first3=James |last4=Thompson |first4=Kevin |last5=Redlin |first5=Jennifer |last6=Demuth |first6=Gail |last7=Smyth |first7=Joshua |date=2001 |title=Pathways mediating sexual abuse and eating disturbance in children |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/eat.1018 |journal=International Journal of Eating Disorders |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=270–279 |doi=10.1002/eat.1018 |pmid=11262505 |issn=0276-3478}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Krahn |first=Dean D. |date=January 1991 |title=The relationship of eating disorders and substance abuse |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0899-3289(05)80039-2 |journal=Journal of Substance Abuse |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=239–253 |doi=10.1016/s0899-3289(05)80039-2 |pmid=1821283 |issn=0899-3289}}</ref> Behavioral Effects: Abused children may exhibit behaviors such as aggression, hyperactivity, or withdrawal. They may have difficulty concentrating or have difficulty forming relationships with their peers or adults. Abused children may also exhibit delinquent behaviors, including running away from home, truancy, or other forms of acting out. Educational Effects: Abused children may have difficulty concentrating in school, may experience school refusal, or may struggle with their academic performance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tishelman |first1=Amy C. |last2=Haney |first2=Penny |last3=Greenwald O’Brien |first3=Jessica |last4=Blaustein |first4=Margaret E. |date=2010-12-01 |title=A Framework for School-Based Psychological Evaluations: Utilizing a 'Trauma Lens' |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/19361521.2010.523062 |journal=Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma |language=en |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=279–302 |doi=10.1080/19361521.2010.523062 |s2cid=45539114 |issn=1936-153X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chu |first1=Brian C. |last2=Rizvi |first2=Shireen L. |last3=Zendegui |first3=Elaina A. |last4=Bonavitacola |first4=Lauren |date=2015-08-01 |title=Dialectical Behavior Therapy for School Refusal: Treatment Development and Incorporation of Web-Based Coaching |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1077722914001023 |journal=Cognitive and Behavioral Practice |language=en |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=317–330 |doi=10.1016/j.cbpra.2014.08.002 |issn=1077-7229}}</ref> Long-Term Effects: Abused children may experience long-term effects such as difficulty forming relationships, difficulty managing emotions, and difficulty trusting other people.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dimock |first=Peter T. |date=June 1988 |title=Adult Males Sexually Abused as Children: Characteristics and Implications for Treatment |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/088626088003002007 |journal=Journal of Interpersonal Violence |language=en |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=203–221 |doi=10.1177/088626088003002007 |s2cid=146528949 |issn=0886-2605}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sigurdardottir |first1=Sigrun |last2=Halldorsdottir |first2=Sigridur |last3=Bender |first3=Soley S. |date=May 2014 |title=Consequences of childhood sexual abuse for health and well-being: Gender similarities and differences |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1403494813514645 |journal=Scandinavian Journal of Public Health |language=en |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=278–286 |doi=10.1177/1403494813514645 |pmid=24345814 |s2cid=22629543 |issn=1403-4948}}</ref> They may also be more likely to engage in risky behaviors, such as substance abuse, unsafe sex, or criminal behavior. Overall, the effects of abuse can be devastating and long-lasting. It is important to recognize the signs of abuse and to take steps to ensure that children are protected from abuse.

Physically abused children are at risk for later interpersonal problems involving aggressive behavior, and adolescents are at a much greater risk for [[substance use disorder]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brent |first=David A. |date=December 1995 |title=Risk Factors for Adolescent Suicide and Suicidal Behavior: Mental and Substance Abuse Disorders, Family Environmental Factors, and Life Stress |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1943-278X.1995.tb00490.x |journal=Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior |language=en |volume=25 |pages=52–63 |doi=10.1111/j.1943-278X.1995.tb00490.x|pmid=8553429 }}</ref> In addition, symptoms of depression, emotional distress, and [[suicidal ideation]] are also common features of people who have been physically abused. Studies have also shown that children with a history of physical abuse may meet [[DSM-IV-TR]] criteria for [[post traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD).<ref name="Mash">{{cite book|last=Mash|first=Eric|title=Abnormal Child Psychology|year=2010|publisher=Wadsworth Cengage Learning|location=Belmont, California|isbn=9780495506270|pages=427–463}}</ref> As many as one-third of children who experience physical abuse are also at risk to become abusive as adults.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Oliver | first1 = JE | year = 1993 | title = Intergenerational transmission of child abuse: rates, research, and clinical implications | journal = Am J Psychiatry | volume = 150 | issue = 99| pages = 1314–24 | doi = 10.1176/ajp.150.9.1315 | pmid = 8352342 }}</ref>

Researchers have pointed to other potential psycho-biological effects of child physical abuse on parenting, when abused children become adults. These recent findings may, at least in part, be carried forward by epigenetic changes that impact the regulation of stress physiology.<ref>Schechter DS, Moser DA, Paoloni-Giacobino A, Stenz A, Gex-Fabry M, Aue T, Adouan W, Cordero MI, Suardi F, Manini A, Sancho Rossignol A, Merminod G, Ansermet F, Dayer AG, Rusconi Serpa S (epub May 29, 2015). Methylation of NR3C1 is related to maternal PTSD, parenting stress and maternal medial prefrontal cortical activity in response to child separation among mothers with histories of violence exposure. Frontiers in Psychology. To view the online publication, please click here: http://www.frontiersin.org/Journal/Abstract.aspx?s=944&name=psychology_for_clinical_settings&ART_DOI=10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00690&field=&journalName=Frontiers_in_Psychology&id=139466{{dead link|date=March 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Weder | first1 = N | last2 = Zhang | first2 = H | last3 = Jensen | first3 = K | last4 = Yang | first4 = BZ | last5 = Simen | first5 = A | last6 = Jackowski | first6 = A | last7 = Lipschitz | first7 = D | last8 = Douglas-Palumberi | first8 = H | last9 = Ge | first9 = M | last10 = Perepletchikova | first10 = F | last11 = O'Loughlin | first11 = K | last12 = Hudziak | first12 = JJ | last13 = Gelernter | first13 = J | last14 = Kaufman | first14 = J | year = 2014 | title = Child abuse, depression, and methylation in genes involved with stress, neural plasticity, and brain circuitry | journal = J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry | volume = 53| issue = 4| pages = 417–424.e5| doi = 10.1016/j.jaac.2013.12.025 | pmid = 24655651 | pmc = 4126411 }}</ref> Many other potentially important consequences of childhood physical abuse on adolescent and adult physical and mental health and development have been documented via the Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) studies.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hillis | first1 = SD | last2 = Anda | first2 = RF | last3 = Dube | first3 = SR | last4 = Felitti | first4 = VJ | last5 = Marchbanks | first5 = PA | last6 = Marks | first6 = JS | date = Feb 2004 | title = The association between adverse childhood experiences and adolescent pregnancy, long-term psychosocial consequences, and fetal death | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 113 | issue = 2| pages = 320–7 | doi = 10.1542/peds.113.2.320 | pmid = 14754944 }}</ref>

Seeking treatment is unlikely for a majority of people that are physically abused, and the ones who are seeking treatment are usually under some form of legal constraint. The prevention and treatment options for physically abused children include: enhancing positive experiences early in the development of the parent-child relationship, as well as changing how parents teach, discipline, and attend to their children.

Evidence-based interventions include [[cognitive behavioral therapy]] (CBT) as well as video-feedback interventions and child-parent [[psychodynamic psychotherapy]]; all of which specifically target anger patterns and distorted beliefs, and offer training and/or reflection, support, and modelling that focuses on parenting skills and expectations, as well as increasing empathy for the child by supporting the parent's taking the child's perspective.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kolko | first1 = D. J. | year = 1996 | title = Individual cognitive-behavioral treatment and family therapy for physically abused children and their offending parents: A comparison of clinical outcomes | journal = Child Maltreatment | volume = 1 | issue = 4| pages = 322–342 | doi = 10.1177/1077559596001004004 | s2cid = 144341829 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Schechter | first1 = DS | last2 = Myers | first2 = MM | last3 = Brunelli | first3 = SA | last4 = Coates | first4 = SW | last5 = Zeanah | first5 = CH | last6 = Davies | first6 = M | last7 = Grienenberger | first7 = JF | last8 = Marshall | first8 = RD | last9 = McCaw | first9 = JE | last10 = Trabka | first10 = KA | last11 = Liebowitz | first11 = MR | year = 2006 | title = Traumatized mothers can change their minds about their toddlers: Understanding how a novel use of videofeedback supports positive change of maternal attributions | journal = [[Infant Mental Health Journal]] | volume = 27 | issue = 5| pages = 429–448 | doi = 10.1002/imhj.20101 | pmid = 18007960 | pmc = 2078524 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Lieberman|first=A.F.|year=2007|title=Ghosts and angels: Intergenerational patterns in the transmission and treatment of the traumatic sequelae of domestic violence|journal=Infant Mental Health Journal|volume=28|issue=4|pages=422–439|doi=10.1002/imhj.20145|pmid=28640404}}</ref>

Physical abuse has also been observed among [[Adélie penguin]]s in Antarctica.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jun/09/sex-depravity-penguins-scott-antarctic|title='Sexual depravity' of penguins that Antarctic scientist dared not reveal|newspaper=Guardian.co.uk|date=9 June 2012|first=Robin|last=McKie|access-date=17 December 2016|archive-date=25 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225080445/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jun/09/sex-depravity-penguins-scott-antarctic|url-status=live}}</ref>

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[[Category:Harassment and bullying]]