Wikipedia

Skinhead: Difference between revisions

Browse history interactively
← Previous edit
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
→‎History: deleted an incomplete sentence and other text that was in the wrong spot
 
(713 intermediate revisions by more than 100 users not shown)
Line 1:
{{Redirect|Skinheads|the American 1989 film|Skinheads (film)}}
A '''skinhead''' is a member of a [[subculture]] that originated among [[working class]] youths in [[London]], [[England]] in the 1960s and then soon spread to other parts of the [[United Kingdom]], and later to other countries around the world. Named for their close-cropped or [[Head shaving|shaven heads]], the first skinheads were greatly influenced by [[West Indies|West Indian]] (specifically [[Jamaica]]n) [[rude boy]]s and British [[Mod (subculture)|mods]], in terms of fashion, music and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]].<ref name="autogenerated8">{{cite news| url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2005/is_1_38/ai_n6234788/pg_1 | work=Journal of Social History | title=Subcultures, pop music and politics: skinheads and "Nazi rock" in England and Germany | first=Timothy S. | last=Brown | year=2004}}</ref> Originally, the skinhead subculture was mainly based on those elements, not politics or [[Race (classification of human beings)|race]].
 
Eventually, political affiliations grew in significance for the skinhead subculture, and then the political spectrum within the subculture spanned from [[far-right politics|far right]] to [[far-left politics|far left]], although many skinheads described themselves as [[Apoliticism|apolitical]]. Contemporary skinhead fashions range from clean-cut 1960s mod-influenced styles to less-strict [[Punk subculture|punk]]- and [[hardcore punk|hardcore]]-influenced styles.<ref>{{cite web|work=Skinheadheaven.org.uk|url=http://www.skinheadheaven.org.uk/index.php/cuttings/49-ska-party-id-magazine-article-1988|first=John|last=Godfrey|date=September 1988|title=Ska Party}}</ref>
 
==History==
[[File:Hoxton Tom McCourt 1977.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Hoxton Tom McCourt]], a revival skinhead pictured in 1977]]
In the late 1950s the post-war [[boom and bust|economic boom]] led to an increase in [[disposable income]] among many young people. Some of those youths spent that income on new fashions popularised by American [[soul music|soul]] groups, British [[Rhythm and blues|R&B]] bands, certain film actors, and [[Carnaby Street]] clothing merchants.<ref name="Mods">{{cite book |last=Rawlings |first=Terry |title=Mod: A Very British Phenomenon |publisher=Omnibus Press |year=2000 |location=London |isbn=0-7119-68136}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.modculture.co.uk/culture/archive.php?category=modscenepast |title=Articles from |publisher=Modculture.com |date= |accessdate=31 August 2010}}</ref> These youths became known as [[Mod (subculture)|mods]], a youth subculture noted for its [[consumerism]] and devotion to fashion, music and [[scooter (motorcycle)|scooters]].<ref name="Mods 2">{{cite book |last=Barnes |first=Richard |title=Mods! |publisher=Eel Pie Publishing Ltd.|year=1979 |location=London |isbn=0-85965-173-8}}</ref>
 
Mods of lesser means made do with practical clothing styles that suited their lifestyle and employment circumstances: work [[boot]]s or [[combat boot|army boots]], straight-leg [[jeans]] or [[Sta-Prest]] [[trousers]], button-down shirts and braces (called [[suspenders]] in North America). When possible, these working class mods spent their money on suits and other sharp outfits to wear at dancehalls, where they enjoyed [[Soul music|soul]], [[ska]], [[Blue Beat Records|bluebeat]] and [[rocksteady]] music.<ref name="autogenerated8"/><ref name="Mod music">{{cite book |last=Edwards |first=Dave |title=Trojan Mod Reggae Box Set liner notes |publisher=Trojan Records |date= |location=London |id=TJETD020}}</ref>
 
Around 1966, a [[Schism (religion)|schism]] developed between the ''peacock mods'' (also known as ''smooth mods''), who were less violent and always wore the latest expensive clothes, and the ''hard mods'' (also known as ''[[gang]] mods'', ''lemonheads'' or ''peanuts''), who were identified by their shorter hair and more working class image.<ref name="skinheads">{{cite book |last=Old Skool Jim |first= |title=Trojan Skinhead Reggae Box Set liner notes |publisher=Trojan Records |date= |location=London |id=TJETD169}}</ref> These hard mods became commonly known as skinheads by about 1968.<ref name="skinheads 2">{{cite book |last=Marshall |first=George |title=Spirit of '69 - A Skinhead Bible |publisher=S.T. Publishing |year=1991 |location=Dunoon, Scotland |isbn=1-898927-10-3}}</ref> Their short hair may have come about for practical reasons, since long hair can be a liability in industrial jobs and in streetfights. Skinheads may also have cut their hair short in defiance of the more middle class [[hippie]] culture.<ref name="autogenerated9">{{cite news| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,909318,00.html?promoid=googlep | work=Time | title=Britain: The Skinheads|date=8 June 1970|accessdate=23 May 2010}}</ref>
 
In addition to retaining many mod influences, early skinheads were very interested in [[Jamaica]]n [[rude boy]] styles and culture, especially the music: ska, rocksteady, and early [[reggae]] (before the [[tempo]] slowed down and lyrics became focused on topics like [[black nationalism]] and the [[Rastafari movement]]).<ref name="autogenerated8" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ska.about.com/musicperform/ska/library/1999/aa081699a.htm |title=Smiling Smash: An Interview with Cathal Smyth, a.k.a Chas Smash, of Madness |publisher=Web.archive.org |date= |accessdate=31 August 2010 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20010219175613/ska.about.com/musicperform/ska/library/1999/aa081699a.htm |archivedate=19 February 2001}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated3">{{cite web|url=http://www.reggaereggaereggae.com/Special%20Articles.htm |title=Special Articles |publisher=Reggaereggaereggae.com |date= |accessdate=31 August 2010}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>
 
Skinhead culture became so popular by 1969 that even the rock band [[Slade]] temporarily adopted the look as a marketing strategy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soundchecks.co.uk/articles/noholder.html |title=Straight From His Own Gob&nbsp;— Noddy Holder interview |publisher=Soundchecks.co.uk |date= |accessdate=31 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.brumbeat.net/aslade.htm |title=Ambrose Slade: The Wolverhampton group that became Slade |publisher=Brumbeat.net |date= |accessdate=31 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A454925 |title=h2g2 - Slade&nbsp;— the band |publisher=BBC |date= |accessdate=31 August 2010}}</ref> The subculture gained wider notice because of a series of violent and sexually explicit novels by [[James Moffat (author)|Richard Allen]], notably ''Skinhead'' and ''Skinhead Escapes''.<ref>http://www.skinhead.no/content/articles/richardallen.asp</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stewarthomesociety.org/sex/gensexco.htm |title=British Hell's Angel and Skinhead novels of the 1970s |publisher=Stewarthomesociety.org |date= |accessdate=31 August 2010}}</ref> Due to largescale British migration to [[Perth]], [[Western Australia]], many British youths in that city joined skinhead/[[sharpies (Australian subculture)|sharpies]] gangs in the late 1960s and developed their own Australian style.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/dimensions/dimensions_in_time/Transcripts/s508106.htm |title=The Sharpies&nbsp;— Cult Gangs of the Sixties and Seventies |publisher=Abc.net.au |date= |accessdate=31 August 2010}}</ref><ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/arts/visual/stories/sharpies_index.htm The Space Visual Arts: Sharpies]{{Dead link|date=August 2010}}</ref>
 
By the early 1970s, the skinhead subculture started to fade from popular culture, and some of the original skins dropped into new categories, such as the ''[[Suedehead (subculture)|suedeheads]]'' (defined by the ability to manipulate one's hair with a comb), ''smoothies'' (often with shoulder-length hairstyles), and ''bootboys'' (with mod-length hair; associated with gangs and [[football hooliganism]]).<ref name="skinheads 2" /><ref name="autogenerated9" /><ref name="Suedeheads">{{cite book |last=de Konigh |first=Michael |title=Suedehead Reggae Box Set liner notes |publisher=Trojan Records |year=2004 |location=London |id=TJETD003}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.filmnoirbuff.com/article/suedeheads |title=Suedeheads |publisher=Film Noir Buff |date= |accessdate=31 August 2010}}</ref> Some fashion trends returned to the mod roots, with [[brogues]], [[loafers]], suits, and the [[Trousers|slacks]]-and-[[sweater]] look making a comeback.
 
{{unreferenced section|date=June 2014}}
In the late 1970s, the skinhead subculture was revived to a notable extent after the introduction of [[punk rock]]. Most of these revivalist skinheads reacted to the commercialism of punk by adopting a look that was in line with the original 1969 skinhead style.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}} This revival included Gary Hodges and [[Hoxton Tom McCourt]] (both later of the band the [[4-Skins]]) and [[Suggs (singer)|Suggs]], later of the band [[Madness (band)|Madness]]. Around this time, some skinheads became affiliated with [[far-right politics|far right]] groups such as the [[National Front (United Kingdom)|National Front]] and the [[British Movement]].{{citation needed|date=June 2014}} From 1979 onwards, [[Punk fashion|punk-influenced]] skinheads with shorter hair, higher boots and less emphasis on traditional styles grew in numbers and grabbed media attention, mostly due to [[football hooliganism]]. There still remained, however, skinheads who preferred the original mod-inspired styles.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}
 
Eventually different interpretations of the skinhead subculture expanded beyond Britain and continental Europe. In the United States, certain segments of the [[hardcore punk]] scene embraced skinhead styles and developed their own version of the subculture.<ref name="autogenerated4">[http://www.stuffmagazine.com/articles/index.aspx?id=1519 Rage with the Machine Article on Stuffmagazine.com]{{Dead link|date=August 2010}}</ref>
 
==Style==
===Hair===
{{unreferenced section|date=January 2013}}
Most male skinheads in the 1960s had their hair cropped with a [[Buzz cut|No. 2 or No. 3 grade clip guard]] (short, but not bald). Starting in the late 1970s, male skinheads typically shaved their heads with a No. 2 grade clip or shorter. During that period, side partings were sometimes shaved into the hair. Since the 1980s, some skinheads have clipped their hair with no guard, or even shaved it with a razor. Some skinheads sport [[sideburns]] of various styles, usually neatly trimmed, but most skinheads do not have mustaches or beards.
 
In the 1960s, most female skinheads had mod-style haircuts. During the 1980s skinhead revival, many female skinheads had feathercuts (known as a Chelsea in North America). A feathercut is short on the crown, with [[Fringe (hair)|fringes]] at the front, back and sides. Some female skinheads have a shorter punk-style version of the hairstyle, called a Chelsea cut, which is almost entirely shaved, leaving only bangs and fringes at the front. (Skin girls with hair cropped all over, as in the male style, have always been very rare).{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}
 
===Clothing and accessories===
The following describes many of the clothing items and accessories common among skinheads.<ref name="skinheads 2"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Knight |first=Nick |url=http://www.skinheads.ru/books/Nick_Knight-Skinhead-EN.djvu |title=Skinhead|publisher=Omnibus Press |year=1997 |location=London |isbn=0-7119-0052-3}}</ref>
 
Skinheads have been known to wear long-sleeve or short-sleeve [[Dress shirt|button-up shirts]] or [[Tennis shirt|polo shirts]] by brands such as [[Ben Sherman]], [[Fred Perry]], [[Brutus Jeans|Brutus]], Warrior or Jaytex; [[Lonsdale (brand)|Lonsdale]] or [[Everlast (boxing)|Everlast]] shirts or [[sweatshirts]]; [[Grandfather shirt]]s; V-neck [[sweater]]s; [[sleeveless sweater]]s; [[Cardigan (sweater)|cardigan sweaters]] or [[T-shirt]]s (plain or with text or designs related to the skinhead subculture). Some Oi! and hardcore-oriented skinheads wear [[Sleeveless shirt|plain white tank top undershirts]], especially in North America. They have also worn fitted [[blazer]]s, [[Harrington jacket]]s, [[Flight jacket|bomber jackets]], [[denim]] jackets (usually blue, sometimes splattered with bleach), [[donkey jacket]]s, [[Crombie (brand)|Crombie]]-style overcoats, [[sheepskin]] ¾-length coats, short [[Mackintosh|macs]], [[monkey jackets]] or [[Anorak|parkas]]. Traditional skinheads sometimes wear suits, often made out of two-tone tonic fabric (shiny [[mohair]]-like material that changes colour in different light and angles), or in a [[Glen plaid|Prince of Wales]] or [[houndstooth]] check pattern.
 
Many skinheads wear [[Sta-Prest]] flat-fronted slacks or other dress [[trousers]]; [[jeans]] (normally [[Levi Strauss & Co.|Levi's]], [[Lee (Jeans)|Lee]] or [[Wrangler Jeans|Wrangler]]); or combat trousers (plain or camouflage). Jeans and slacks are worn deliberately short (either hemmed or rolled) to show off boots, or to show off socks when wearing loafers or brogues. Jeans are often blue, with a parallel leg design, hemmed or with clean and thin rolled cuffs (turn-ups), and are sometimes splattered with [[bleach]] to resemble [[camouflage]] trousers (a style popular among [[Oi!]] skinheads).
 
Many traditionalist skinheads wear braces (known in North America as [[suspenders]]), in various colours, usually no more than 1" in width, clipped to the trouser waistband. In some areas, braces much wider than that may identify a skinhead as either unfashionable or as a [[white power skinhead]]. Traditionally, braces are worn up in an X shape at the back, but some Oi!-oriented skinheads wear their braces hanging down. Patterned braces — often black and white check, or vertical stripes — are sometimes worn by traditional skinheads. In a few cases, the colour of braces ([[suspenders]]) or flight jackets have been used to signify affiliations. The particular colours chosen have varied regionally, and have had totally different meanings in different areas and time periods. Only skinheads from the same area and time period are likely to interpret the colour significations accurately. The practice of using the colour clothing items to indicate affiliations has become less common, particularly among traditionalist skinheads, who are more likely to choose their colours simply for fashion purposes.
 
Hats common among skinheads include: [[Trilby]] hats; [[pork pie hat]]s; [[flat cap]]s (''Scally caps'' or ''driver caps''), [[Tuque|winter woollen hats]] (without a bobble). Less common have been [[bowler hat]]s (mostly among suedeheads and those influenced by the film ''[[A Clockwork Orange (film)|A Clockwork Orange]]'').
 
Traditionalist skinheads sometimes wear a silk handkerchief in the breast pocket of a Crombie-style overcoat or tonic suit jacket, in some cases fastened with an ornate stud. Some wear pocket flashes instead. These are pieces of silk in contrasting colours, mounted on a piece of cardboard and designed to look like an elaborately folded handkerchief. It was common to choose the colours based on one's favourite football club. Some skinheads wear button badges or sewn-on fabric patches with designs related to affiliations, interests or beliefs. Also popular are woollen or printed rayon scarves in football club colours, worn knotted at the neck, wrist, or hanging from a belt loop at the waist. Silk or faux-silk scarves (especially Tootal brand) with [[paisley (design)|paisley]] patterns are also sometimes worn.
 
Some suedeheads carried closed umbrellas with sharpened tips, or a handle with a pull-out blade. This led to the nickname ''brollie boys''.
 
Female skinheads generally wear the same clothing items as men, with addition of skirts, stockings, or dress suits composed of a ¾-length jacket and matching short skirt. Some skingirls wear fishnet stockings and mini-skirts, a style introduced during the punk-influenced skinhead revival.
 
===Footwear===
[[File:Dr martens boots.jpg|thumb|200px|Skinhead style: [[Dr. Martens]] boots with [[Levi Strauss & Co.|Levi's]] jeans]]
Most skinheads wear [[boots]]; originally they wore [[Combat boot|army surplus]] or generic workboots, then [[Dr. Martens]] boots and shoes. In 1960s Britain, steel-toe boots worn by skinheads and hooligans were called [[bovver boot]]s; whence skinheads have themselves sometimes been called ''bovver boys''. Skinheads have also been known to wear [[brogues]], [[loafers]] or Dr. Martens (or similarly styled) low shoes.
 
In recent years, other brands of boots, such as [[Solovair]], [[Tredair]] and Grinders, have become popular among skinheads, partly because most Dr. Martens are no longer made in England. [[Association football|Football]]-style [[athletic shoe]]s, by brands such as [[Adidas]] or [[Gola (manufacturer)|Gola]], have become popular with many skinheads. Female or child skinheads generally wear the same footwear as men, with the addition of monkey boots. The traditional brand for monkey boots was Grafters, but nowadays they are also made by Dr. Martens and Solovair.
 
In the early days of the skinhead subculture, some skinheads chose boot lace colours based on the football team they supported. Later, some skinheads (particularly highly political ones) began to use lace colour to indicate beliefs or affiliations. The particular colours chosen have varied regionally, and have had totally different meanings in different areas and time periods. Only skinheads from the same area and time period are likely to interpret the colour significations accurately. This practice has become less common, particularly among traditionalist skinheads, who are more likely to choose their colours simply for fashion purposes.
 
[[Suedehead (subculture)|Suedeheads]] sometimes wore coloured socks.<ref>de Konigh, Michael, Suedehead Reggae Box Set liner notes. (2004: London, Trojan Records. TJETD003)</ref>
 
==Music==
The skinhead subculture was originally associated with [[black people|black]] [[popular music]] genres such as [[Soul music|soul]], ska, [[rocksteady]] and early [[reggae]].<ref name="autogenerated8" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ska.about.com/musicperform/ska/library/1999/aa081699a.htm |title=Smiling Smash: An Interview with Cathal Smyth, a.k.a Chas Smash, of Madness&nbsp;— Ska/Reggae - 08/16/99 |publisher=Web.archive.org |date= |accessdate=31 August 2010 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20010219175613/ska.about.com/musicperform/ska/library/1999/aa081699a.htm |archivedate=19 February 2001}}</ref> The link between skinheads and [[Music of Jamaica|Jamaican music]] led to the development of the [[Reggae genres|skinhead reggae]] genre, performed by artists such as: [[Desmond Dekker]], [[Derrick Morgan]], [[Laurel Aitken]], [[Symarip]] and [[The Pioneers (band)|The Pioneers]].<ref name="autogenerated3"/>
 
In the early 1970s, some reggae songs began to feature themes of [[black nationalism]], which many white skinheads could not relate to.<ref>Brown, 2004</ref> This shift in reggae's lyrical themes created some tension between black and white skinheads, who otherwise got along fairly well.<ref>Hebdige, 1979, pg 58</ref> Around this time, some [[Suedehead (subculture)|suedeheads]] (an offshoot of the skinhead subculture) started listening to British [[glam rock]] bands such as [[Sweet (band)|Sweet]], [[Slade]] and [[Mott the Hoople]].<ref name="Suedeheads"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.themilkfactory.co.uk/interviews/rhkiw.htm |title=RICHARD H KIRK Interview |publisher=Themilkfactory.co.uk |date= |accessdate=31 August 2010}}</ref>
 
The most popular music style for late-1970s skinheads was [[2 Tone (music genre)|2 Tone]], which was a fusion of ska, rocksteady, reggae, pop and [[punk rock]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://2-tone.info |title=The 2-Tone discography |publisher=2-tone.info |date= |accessdate=31 August 2010}}</ref> The 2 Tone genre was named after [[2 Tone Records]], a [[Coventry]] [[record label]] that featured bands such as [[The Specials]], [[Madness (band)|Madness]] and [[The Selecter]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://2-tone.info/articles/books.html |title=2 Tone Records - 2 Tone & Related Bibliography |publisher=2-tone.info |date= |accessdate=31 August 2010}}</ref><ref>Moskowitz, David V. (2006). Caribbean Popular Music. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 270. ISBN 0-313-33158-8</ref><ref>[http://www.thespecials.com/history3.php The Specials.com]{{Dead link|date=August 2010}}</ref> Some late-1970s skinheads also liked certain punk rock bands, such as [[Sham 69]] and Menace.
 
Also in the late 1970s, after the first wave of punk rock, many skinheads embraced [[Oi!]], a working class punk subgenre.<ref>Dalton, Stephen, "Revolution Rock", Vox, June 1993</ref> Musically, Oi! combines standard punk with elements of [[football chant]]s, [[Pub rock (UK)|pub rock]] and British glam rock.<ref name="autogenerated5">[http://www.garry-bushell.co.uk/oi/ Oi!&nbsp;– The Truth by Garry Bushell]{{Dead link|date=August 2010}}</ref> The Oi! scene was partly a response to a sense that many participants in the early punk scene were, in the words of [[The Business (band)|The Business]] guitarist Steve Kent, "trendy university people using long words, trying to be artistic ... and losing touch".<ref>[[John Robb (musician)|Robb, John]] (2006). ''Punk Rock: An Oral History'' (London: Elbury Press). ISBN 0-09-190511-7</ref> The term Oi! as a musical genre is said to come from the band [[Cockney Rejects]] and journalist [[Garry Bushell]], who championed the genre in [[Sounds (magazine)|''Sounds'' magazine]].<ref name="autogenerated5" /><ref>Turner, Jeff; Garry Bushell (2005). Cockney Reject. London: John Blake Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-84454-054-5</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://oisite.tripod.com/rejects.html |title=Cockney Rejects |publisher=Oisite.tripod.com |date= |accessdate=31 August 2010}}</ref> Not exclusively a skinhead genre, many Oi! bands included skins, [[punk subculture|punks]] and people who fit into neither category (sometimes called herberts{{Citation needed|date=January 2008}}). Notable Oi! bands of the late 1970s and early 1980s include [[Angelic Upstarts]], [[Blitz (band)|Blitz]], The Business, Last Resort, [[The Burial]], [[Combat 84]] and [[The 4-Skins]].<ref name="skinheads 2" />
 
American Oi! began in the 1980s, with bands such as [[U.S. Chaos]], [[The Press (band)|The Press]], [[Iron Cross (band)|Iron Cross]], [[The Bruisers]] and [[Anti-Heros]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.maninblack.org/thepress.html |title=The Press a tribute page |publisher=Maninblack.org |date= |accessdate=31 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://dementlieu.com/users/obik/arc/dc/ironcross_itg2.html |title=Dementlieu Punk Archive: Washington, DC: Iron Cross interview from If This Goes On 2 |publisher=Dementlieu.com |date= |accessdate=31 August 2010}}</ref><ref>[http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/sunsetstrip/7596/antihero.html&date=2009-10-25+22:29:08 Oi! American Oi! : Anti-Heros]</ref> American skinheads created a link between their subculture and [[hardcore punk]] music, with bands such as [[Warzone (band)|Warzone]], [[Agnostic Front]], and [[Cro-Mags]]. The Oi! style has also spread to other parts of the world, and remains popular with many skinheads. Many later Oi! bands have combined influences from early American hardcore and 1970s British [[street punk|streetpunk]].
 
[[File:2009-10-25blasphemy.JPG|thumbnail|Canadian [[black metal]] band [[Blasphemy (band)|Blasphemy]], which uses the term "black metal skinheads."<ref name="blasphemyritual.com">{{cite web|url=http://blasphemyritual.com/bms_tshirts.html|title=Blasphemy Black Metal Skinheads T-Shirts|publisher=|accessdate=22 April 2015}}</ref>]]
Among some skinheads, [[black metal]] is popular. Bands such as the Canadian act [[Blasphemy (band)|Blasphemy]], whose guitarist is black, has been known to popularise and merchandise the phrase "black metal skinheads."<ref name="blasphemyritual.com"/> As the group's vocalist recounts, "a lot of black metal skinheads from the other side of Canada" would join in on the [[British Columbia]]n black metal underground. "I remember one guy... who had 'Black Metal Skins' tattooed on his forehead. We didn't hang out with white power skinheads, but there were some Oi skinheads who wanted to hang out with us."<ref>''Black Metal: Evolution of the Cult'' (2013), p. 73</ref> [[National Socialist black metal]] has an audience among white power skinheads. There was a record label called "Satanic Skinhead Propaganda" that was known to specialize in neo-Nazi black metal and death metal bands.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metal-archives.com/labels/Satanic_Skinhead_Propaganda/162#|title=Satanic Skinhead Propaganda|publisher=|accessdate=22 April 2015}}</ref> Black metal pioneer and right-wing extremist [[Varg Vikernes]] was known to adopt a skinhead look and wear a belt with the SS insignia while serving time in prison for the [[Varg Vikernes#Arson of Churches|arson of several stave churches]] and the murder of [[Øystein Aarseth]].<ref>''Lords of Chaos'' (2003), p. 362</ref>
 
Although many [[white power skinhead]]s listened to Oi! music, they also developed a separate genre that was more in line with their politics: [[Rock Against Communism]] (RAC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aryanunity.com/memoirs8.html |title=WNP&nbsp;— Memoirs of a Street Soldier Part 8 |publisher=Aryanunity.com |date= |accessdate=31 August 2010}}</ref> The most notable RAC band was [[Skrewdriver]], which started out as a non-political punk band but evolved into a [[Neo-Nazism|neo-Nazi]] band after the first lineup broke up and a new lineup was formed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.punk77.co.uk/groups/skrewdriverinterview.htm |title=Skrewdriver- A Fan's View |publisher=Punk77.co.uk |date= |accessdate=31 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.punk77.co.uk/groups/skrewdrivecuttings.htm |title=Skrewdriver- Press Cuttings |publisher=Punk77.co.uk |date= |accessdate=31 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.skrewdriver.net/diamond.html|title=Diamond in the Dust - The Ian Stuart Biography|publisher=|accessdate=22 April 2015}}</ref> RAC started out musically similar to Oi! and punk, but has since adopted elements from other genres. White power music that draws inspiration from [[hardcore punk]] is sometimes called [[hatecore]].
 
==Racism, anti-racism and politics==
[[File:Neonazi-skinheads-weiss-und-stolz.jpg|thumb|Unidentified [[white power skinhead]]. His badge says "Skinheads - {{lang|de|Weiss und stolz}}" ("Skinheads - White and proud").]]In the late 1960s, some skinheads in the United Kingdom (including [[Black people|black]] skinheads) had engaged in violence against [[British Asian|South Asian immigrants]] (an act known as ''[[List of ethnic slurs#Paki|Paki]] bashing'' in common slang).<ref name="autogenerated9">{{cite news| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,909318,00.html?promoid=googlep | work=Time | title=Britain: The Skinheads | date=8 June 1970 | accessdate=23 May 2010}}</ref><ref name="Marshall, George 1996">Marshall, George. ''Skinhead Nation''. ST Publishing, 1996. ISBN 1-898927-45-6, ISBN 978-1-898927-45-7.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trojanrecords.net/articles/monty2.htm |title=Monty Montgomery of the Pyramids/Symarip interview |publisher=Web.archive.org |date= |accessdate=31 August 2010 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20050929223759/http://www.trojanrecords.net/articles/monty2.htm |archivedate = 29 September 2005}}</ref> There had, however, also been [[Anti-racism|anti-racist]] skinheads since the beginning of the subculture, especially in [[Scotland]] and [[Northern England]].<ref name="Marshall, George 1996"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sozialismus-von-unten.de/archiv/text/redskins.htm |title=REDSKINS&nbsp;— The Interview, 1986 |publisher=Sozialismus-von-unten.de |date= |accessdate=31 August 2010}}</ref>
 
In the [[Netherlands]], the skinhead fashion was adopted by the [[Gabber]] youth culture of the [[Hardcore techno]] scene during the 1990s. However, the scene also suffered backlash from the Dutch media, labelling it as racist and neo-fascist. To combat this, many Hardcore producers and event organizers spoke out against racism.
 
These early skinheads were not necessarily part of any political movement, but that changed by the early 1970s. As the 1970s progressed, [[Racism|racially-motivated]] skinhead violence in the United Kingdom became more political, and far right groups such as the [[National Front (UK)|National Front]] and the [[British Movement]] saw a rise in [[white power skinhead]]s among their ranks. By the late 1970s, the mass media, and subsequently the general public, had largely come to view the skinhead subculture as one that promotes racism and [[neo-Nazism]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2007}} The white power and neo-Nazi skinhead subculture eventually spread to North America, Europe and other areas of the world. The mainstream media started using the term ''skinhead'' in reports of racist violence (regardless of whether the perpetrator was actually a skinhead); this has played a large role in skewing public perceptions about the subculture.<ref>Osgerby, 1998, 65</ref> Three notable groups that formed in the 1980s and became associated with white power skinheads are [[White Aryan Resistance]], [[Blood and Honour]] and [[Hammerskins]].
[[File:SHARP logo.jpg|thumb|left|[[Skinheads Against Racial Prejudice]] (SHARP) logo]]
Also during the late 1970s and early 1980s, however, many skinheads and [[Suedehead (subculture)|suedeheads]] in the United Kingdom rejected both the far left and far right. This anti-extremist attitude was musically typified by [[Oi!]] bands such as [[Cockney Rejects]], [[The 4-Skins]], [[Toy Dolls]], and [[The Business (band)|The Business]]. Two notable groups of skinheads who spoke out against neo-Nazism and political extremism—and in support of [[Trojan skinhead|traditional skinhead]] culture—were the Glasgow Spy Kids in Scotland (who coined the phrase ''Spirit of '69''), and the publishers of the ''Hard As Nails'' [[zine]] in England.<ref name="Marshall, George 1996"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.skinheadheaven.org.uk/index.php/cuttings/49-ska-party-id-magazine-article-1988 |title=Ska Party |publisher=Skinheadheaven.org.uk |date= |accessdate=31 August 2010}}</ref>
[[File:Red and Anarchist Skinheads logo.jpeg|frame|right|[[Red and Anarchist Skinheads]] (RASH) logo]]
In the United States, anti-racist skinheads countered the neo-Nazi [[stereotype]] by forming organisations such as the [[Minneapolis]] Baldies, which started in 1986; [[Skinheads Against Racial Prejudice]] (SHARP), which was founded in [[New York City]] in 1987 and then spread to other countries; and [[Anti-Racist Action]] (ARA), which was formed in the late 1980s by members of the Minneapolis Baldies and other activists.<ref name="Marshall, George 1996"/><ref>{{cite web|author=Matt Snyders |url=http://articles.citypages.com/2008-02-20/feature/skinheads-at-forty |title=Skinheads at Forty&nbsp;— City Pages (Minneapolis/St. Paul) |publisher=Articles.citypages.com |date=20 February 2008 |accessdate=31 August 2010}}</ref>
 
On the far left of the skinhead subculture, [[Redskin (subculture)|redskins]] and [[Anarchism|anarchist]] skinheads take a militant [[anti-fascism|anti-fascist]] and pro-working class stance.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geocities.com/revolutiontimes/rtint2.htm|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20091027092023/http://www.geocities.com/revolutiontimes/rtint2.htm|title=REVOLUTION TIMES HOMEPAGE - Revolution Times-Interview aus Autonom # 17|archivedate=27 October 2009|publisher=|accessdate=22 April 2015}}</ref> In the United Kingdom, two groups with significant numbers of leftist skinhead members were [[Red Action]], which started in 1981, and [[Anti-Fascist Action]], which started in 1985. Internationally, the most notable left-wing skinhead organisation is [[Red and Anarchist Skinheads]], which formed in the New York City area in 1993 and then spread to other countries.<ref>[http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/capitolhill/lobby/3475/index2.html&date=2009-10-25+16:55:57 US RASH News Website]</ref>
 
==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}
 
==Further reading==
* Daniel, Susie and Peter McGuire et al. ''The Painthouse: Words from an East End Gang''. Penguin Books: Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England, 1972.
* Davis, John. Youth and the Condition of Britain: Images of Adolescent Conflict. Athlone Press, NJ. 1990
* Hebdige, Dick. Subculture: The Meaning of Style. London: Fletcher & Son ltd, 1979.
* Osgerby, Bill. Youth in Britain since 1945. Blackwell Publishers: Malden, Massachusetts, 1998.
* Osgerby, Bill. Youth Media London: Routledge, 2004.
* Pearson,Geoff. “’Paki-Bashing’ in a North East Lancashire Cotton Town: A case study and its history” Working Class Youth Culture. Routledge & Kegan Paul: London. 1976. 50.
* [[Neville Staple]] (2009) ''[[Original Rude Boy]]'', [[Aurum Press]]. ISBN 978-1-84513-480-8
 
{{Commons category|Skinheads}}
 
{{Skinhead}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2010}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2010}}
 
[[Category:Skinhead]]
[[Category:Subcultures]]
[[Category:Punk rock]]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skinhead"