Politics of Australia: Difference between revisions

Like other [[Westminster system|Westminster-style systems of government]], Australia's federal system of government [[Separation of powers in Australia|consists of three branches]]: the executive (the [[Prime Minister of Australia|prime minister]], the [[Cabinet of Australia|cabinet]], other [[Ministers of the Crown|ministers]], and government departments), the legislative (the [[Parliament of Australia]]), and the [[Judiciary of Australia|judicial]] (the [[High Court of Australia]] and other [[Judiciary of Australia|federal courts]]). The [[Australian Government|Australian government]] consists of the party or coalition that had majority support in the lower house and exercises both executive (as ministers) and legislative (through control of the House) power.

[[File:Australian Government Structure.svg|center|thumb|473x473px|Diagram of the roles of Australian political institutions]]

[[Separation of powers]] is the principle the power of state should be shared between multiple bodies, in order to avoid the concentration of power in one entity.<ref name="Parliamentary Education Office-2023_2">{{Cite web |title=Separation of powers: Parliament, Executive and Judiciary |url=https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/system-of-government/separation-of-powers-parliament-executive-and-judiciary/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031132705/https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/system-of-government/separation-of-powers-parliament-executive-and-judiciary/ |archive-date=31 October 2023 |access-date=2023-11-08 |website=Parliamentary Education Office |publisher= |language=en}}</ref> The legislature proposes and debates laws that the executive then administers, and the judicial arbitrates cases arising from the administration of laws and [[common law]]. However, in accordance with [[Westminster system]], there is no strict separation between the executive and legislative branches, with ministers required to also be members of the legislature.<ref>{{Cite Legislation AU|Cth|act|coaca430|Australian Constitution|64}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Williams |first1=George |title=Blackshield and Williams Australian constitutional law and theory: commentary and materials |last2=Brennan |first2=Sean |last3=Lynch |first3=Andrew |date=2018 |publisher=The Federation Press |isbn=978-1-76002-151-1 |edition=7th |location=Sydney |page=25 |quote=Under the Westminster system of government which Australia has inherited from the United Kingdom (see Chapter 2, §§2 and 3), there is no similar strict separation between legislative and executive power. On the contrary, the executive is integrated into the legislature by the requirement that the ministers responsible for the departments of government must be Members of Parliament accountable to it through such mechanisms as question time.}}</ref> Only the High Court can deem if a law is constitutional or not.<ref name="Parliamentary Education Office-2023_2" />

The Australian system of government combines elements derived from the political systems of the [[Westminster system|United Kingdom]] ([[Fusion of powers|fused executive]], [[constitutional monarchy]]) and the [[United States Government|United States]] ([[federalism]], [[written constitution]], [[bicameralism|strong bicameralism]]), along with distinctive indigenous features, and has therefore been characterised as a "Washminster mutation".<ref>{{Cite web |title=How have the British and US systems of government influenced the Australian government system? |url=https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/your-questions-on-notice/ |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=Parliamentary Education Office |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Thompson |first=Elaine |date=1980 |title=The "Washminster" Mutation |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00323268008401755 |journal=Australian Journal of Political Science |volume=15 |issue=2 |page= |doi=10.1080/00323268008401755 |url-access=subscription |via=Taylor & Francis Online |doi-access=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thompson |first=Elaine |date=2001 |title=The Constitution and the Australian System of Limited Government, Responsible Government and Representative Democracy: Revisiting the Washminster Mutation |url=https://www.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/journals/UNSWLJ/2001/53.html |journal=University of New South Wales Law Journal |volume=24 |issue=3 |via=[[Austlii]]}}</ref>

The federal nature and the structure of the [[Parliament of Australia]] were the subject of protracted negotiations among the colonies during the drafting of the Constitution.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Australasian Federation Convention |url=https://timeline.peo.gov.au/#event-australasianafederationaconvention |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230708202549/https://timeline.peo.gov.au/%23event-australasianafederationaconvention |archive-date=2023-07-08 |access-date=2023-07-08 |website=timeline.peo.gov.au |publisher=Parliamentary Education Office}}</ref> The [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] is elected on a basis that reflects the differing populations of the states. Therefore, the most populous state, [[New South Wales]], has 48 members, while the least populated, [[Tasmania]], has only five.<ref name="Parliament of Australia-2023_2">{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Infosheet 8 – Elections for the House of Representatives |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/House_of_Representatives/Powers_practice_and_procedure/00_-_Infosheets/Infosheet_8_-_Elections_for_the_House_of_Representatives |url-status=live |archive-url=http://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20230626043015/https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/House_of_Representatives/Powers_practice_and_procedure/00_-_Infosheets/Infosheet_8_-_Elections_for_the_House_of_Representatives |archive-date=26 June 2023 |access-date=2023-07-08 |website=Parliament of Australia |publisher=[[Parliament of Australia]] |language=en-AU}}</ref> But the [[Australian Senate|Senate]] is elected on a basis of equality among the states: all states elect 12 senators, regardless of population. This was intended to give smaller states a significant influence on legislation through their senator's ability to block or amend legislation from the lower house.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=July 2023 |title=Senate Briefs No. 9: Origins of the Senate |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Senate/Powers_practice_n_procedures/Senate_Briefs/Brief09 |access-date= |website=Parliament of Australia |language=en-AU}}</ref> However due to the emergence of strong parties with senators that very rarely [[cross the floor]], its role as a "state's house" is limited.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=July 2023 |title=Senate Briefs No. 10 : The Role of the Senate |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Senate/Powers_practice_n_procedures/Senate_Briefs/Brief10 |access-date= |website=Parliament of Australia |language=en-AU}}</ref> The Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory, the only territories represented in Senate, each elect only two.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=July 2023 |title=Senate Briefs No.1: Electing Australia's Senators |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Senate/Powers_practice_n_procedures/Senate_Briefs/Brief01 |url-status=live |archive-url=http://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20230626043012/https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Senate/Powers_practice_n_procedures/Senate_Briefs/Brief01 |archive-date=26 June 2023 |access-date= |website=Parliament of Australia |publisher= |language=en-AU}}</ref>

The federal government may only legislate on certain matters, with any remaining areas falling within the responsibility of the states. For example, the federal government has the responsibility for defence, inter-state trade and bankruptcy while the states have responsibility for healthcare and education.<ref name="Parliamentary Education Office-2023_1" /> Additionally,the states can agree to refer any of their powers to the Commonwealth government via legislation, as has been done to allow the Commonwealth to regulate corporations.<ref>{{Cite Legislation AU|Cth|act|coaca430|Australian Constitution|51}}(xxxvii.)</ref> The federal government can also significantly influence state legislation by making "tied grants", money which comes with certain conditions. This is a significant power due to high levels of [[Fiscal imbalance in Australia|vertical fiscal imbalance]] arising because of the limited revenue raising capabilities of the states.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Galligan |first=Brian |date=2014-09-15 |title=Renewing federalism: what are the solutions to Vertical Fiscal Imbalance? |url=http://theconversation.com/renewing-federalism-what-are-the-solutions-to-vertical-fiscal-imbalance-31422 |access-date=2023-12-11 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US}}</ref>

[[File:Government_House_Canberra.JPG|thumb|[[Government House, Canberra]]]]The monarch is the symbolic head of Australia and is ceremonially involved in all branches of the government, as a constitutive part of Parliament, formal holder of executive power and appointer of federal judges. In a broader sense, [[the Crown]] represents the authority of the polity itself.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Saunders |first=Cheryl |date=2015 |title=The Concept of the Crown |url=https://law.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/1587019/383Saunders4.pdf |journal=Melbourne University Law Review |volume=38}}</ref> However, in all these functions they are represented by the governor-general, whose appointment is the only mandatory function of the monarch. The [[monarch of Australia]], currently [[Charles III]], is also the monarch of the other [[Commonwealth realm|Commonwealth realms]], and the sovereign of the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite news |last=McElroy |first=Nicholas |date=2022-12-23 |title=Australia's new king will be officially crowned in a few months. Here's what an alternative could look like |language=en-AU |work=[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]] |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-12-24/king-charles-australias-head-of-state-alternative-republic/101470156 |access-date=2023-08-05 |quote="I think that that isn't well understood", said Cindy McCreery, a senior lecturer of history at the University of Sydney. "The fact is that the British monarch is separately, individually monarch of the remaining Commonwealth Realms. "So when King Charles goes to Canada, he is King of Canada, when he goes to Australia, he's King of Australia, and that those are actually separate relationships."}}</ref> The monarch is the [[head of state]], however in almost all matters the governor-general performs the functions of the head of state, [[Australian head of state dispute|leading some commentators to contend that the governor-general is the head of state]]. As a [[constitutional democracy]], the role is limited to constitutional and ceremonial duties.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Democracy |first=Centre of |title=Head of State |url=https://www.centreofdemocracy.sa.gov.au/head-of-state/ |url-status=live |archive-url=http://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20230325134058/https://www.centreofdemocracy.sa.gov.au/head-of-state/ |archive-date=25 March 2023 |access-date=2023-08-05 |website=Centre of Democracy |language=en-US}}</ref> Though in many respects the governor-general is the King's representative, and exercises various constitutional powers in his name, they independently exercise many important powers in their own right. The governor-general also represents Australia internationally, through making and receiving state visits.<ref>{{cite web |date=20 July 2015 |title=Governor-General's Role |url=http://www.gg.gov.au/governor-generals-role |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411022216/http://gg.gov.au/governor-generals-role |archive-date=11 April 2019 |access-date=1 March 2015 |publisher=Office of the Governor-General}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-06-30 |title=Australia |url=https://www.royal.uk/australia |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630105725/https://www.royal.uk/australia |archive-date=30 June 2022 |access-date=2023-08-05 |website=The Royal Family}}</ref>

Since at least the [[Statute of Westminster 1931|passage]] and [[Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942|adoption]] of the ''Statute of Westminster'', the Monarch of Australia (along with the monarchies of the other dominions) is a separate office from the [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|Monarch of the United Kingdom]], despite being held by the same person. As such, in Commonwealth matters, the monarch is only advised by Commonwealth ministers. By the [[Royal Style and Titles Act 1953|''Royal Style and Titles Act 1953'']], the Australian Parliament gave the Queen the title [[Queen of Australia|''Queen of Australia'']], and in 1973 titles with any reference to her status as [[Queen of the United Kingdom]] and [[Fidei defensor|Defender of the Faith]] as well were removed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Royal Style and Titles Act 1953 (Cth) |url=https://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item-did-27.html |access-date=2023-08-05 |website=Documenting Democracy |publisher=[[Museum of Australian Democracy]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Royal Style and Titles Act 1973 (Cth) |url=https://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item-sdid-99.html |access-date=2023-08-05 |website=Documenting Democracy |publisher=[[Museum of Australian Democracy]]}}</ref>

Australia has periodically experienced movements seeking to end the monarchy. In a [[1999 Australian republic referendum|1999 referendum]], the Australian people voted on a proposal to change the Constitution.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=1999 Referendum |url=https://www.aec.gov.au/Elections/referendums/1999_Referendum_Reports_Statistics/1999.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=http://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20220328165637/https://www.aec.gov.au/elections/referendums/1999_referendum_reports_statistics/1999.htm |archive-date=28 March 2022 |access-date=2023-08-05 |website=[[Australian Electoral Commission]] |language=en-AU}}</ref> The proposal would have removed references to the [[Queen of Australia|Queen]] from the Constitution and replaced the [[Governor-General of Australia|governor-general]] with a president nominated by the prime minister, but subject to the approval of a two-thirds majority of both houses of Parliament. The proposal was defeated.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1999-11-30 |title=Referendum '99 National Results – Question 1 – Republic |url=http://www.referendum.aec.gov.au/ |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=http://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20000301132327/http://www.referendum.aec.gov.au/ |archive-date=1 March 2000 |access-date=2023-08-05 |website=Australian Electoral Commission – Virtual Tallyroom}}</ref> The [[Australian Republican Movement]] continues to campaign for an end to the monarchy in Australia, opposed by [[Australians for Constitutional Monarchy]] and [[Australian Monarchist League]].

[[File:Parliament House at dusk, Canberra ACT.jpg|thumb|alt=A large white and cream coloured building with grass on its roof. The building is topped with a large flagpole.|[[Parliament House, Canberra]].]]The Parliament exercises the [[legislative power]] of the Commonwealth by enacting legislation. It also supervises the executive actions of the government, through activities such as question time and Senate estimates.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Separation of powers: Parliament, Executive and Judiciary |url=https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/system-of-government/separation-of-powers/ |url-status=live |archive-url=http://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20230626071211/https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/system-of-government/separation-of-powers/ |archive-date=26 June 2023 |access-date=2023-07-30 |website=The Parliamentary Education Office (PEO) |language=en}}</ref> The [[Parliament of Australia|Australian Parliament]] is [[bicameral]] and consists of the [[King of Australia]], the 76 member [[Australian Senate|Senate]] (the ''upper house'') and the 151 member [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] (the ''lower house''). The [[Australian Government|Australian government]] is [[Responsible government|responsible to the Parliament]], of which they must be (or shortly become) members. In the Senate, 12 senators are from each State and 2 senators from the ACT and the NT respectively are elected by an [[Optional preferential voting|optional preferential]] [[single transferable vote]] system.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Senate elections |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/House_of_Representatives/Powers_practice_and_procedure/Practice7/HTML/Chapter3/Senate_elections |url-status=live |archive-url=http://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20230627030615/http://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/House_of_Representatives/Powers_practice_and_procedure/Practice7/HTML/Chapter3/Senate_elections |archive-date=27 June 2023 |access-date=2023-07-30 |website=[[Parliament of Australia]] |language=en-AU}}</ref> State senators serve staggered fixed six year terms, with half up for election each three years. Territory senators serve a non fixed term equal to that of the House of Representatives, usually around three years.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=No.1 – Electing Australia's Senators |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Senate/Powers_practice_n_procedures/Senate_Briefs/Brief01 |access-date=2023-07-30 |website=[[Parliament of Australia]] |language=en-AU}}</ref> The most recent general election was on [[2022 Australian federal election|21 May 2022]].[[File:Australian_House_of_Representatives_-_Parliament_of_Australia.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Australian House of Representatives]] chamber]]In the House of Representatives, 151 members are elected using [[Instant-runoff voting|full preferential voting]] in single member electorates (also known as ''seats''). Elections are held once at least every three years, however the prime minister (historically the Cabinet) may request the governor-general call a new election at any time (however, they retain the discretion to refuse if inadequate reasons for the election are given).<ref name="Parliament of Australia-2023_2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Powers and functions of the Governor-General |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/House_of_Representatives/Powers_practice_and_procedure/Practice7/HTML/Chapter1/Powers_and_Functions_of_the_Governor-General |access-date=2023-11-08 |website=Parliament of Australia |language=en-AU |quote=It is clear that it is incumbent on the Prime Minister to establish sufficient grounds for the need for dissolution, particularly when the House is not near the end of its three year term. The Governor-General makes a judgment on the sufficiency of the grounds. It is in this situation where it is generally recognised that the Governor-General may exercise a discretion not to accept the advice given.}}</ref> However, as Senate elections must occur only during certain periods and as it generally politically advantageous (while not legally required) to hold House elections at the same time,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Green |first=Antony |author-link=Antony Green |date=2022-03-06 |title=Why the 2022 House and Senate Elections will be held on the same day |url=https://antonygreen.com.au/why-the-2022-house-and-senate-elections-will-be-held-on-the-same-day/ |access-date=2023-11-30 |website=Antony Green's Election Blog |language=en-AU}}</ref> elections are generally restricted to a ten month window between August and May every three years, with the last split election in [[1970 Australian Senate election|1970]] and [[1972 Australian federal election|1972]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Green |first=Antony |author-link=Antony Green |date=2021-06-29 |title=When can the Next Federal Election be Held? |url=https://antonygreen.com.au/when-can-the-next-federal-election-be-held/ |access-date=2023-11-30 |website=Antony Green's Election Blog |language=en-AU}}</ref> Unlike in the Senate, in which each state is represented equally, each state has a number of seats roughly proportional to its population; as such the house is also known as the ''people's house''.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=About the House of Representatives |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/House_of_Representatives/About_the_House_of_Representatives |access-date=2023-11-30 |website=Parliament of Australia |language=en-AU}}</ref> The prime minister is selected from the House, needing the support of the majority of members in order to be invited to form a government.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How is the Prime Minister chosen? |url=https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/your-questions-on-notice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=http://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20230627030616/https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/your-questions-on-notice/ |archive-date=27 June 2023 |access-date=2023-07-30 |website=The Parliamentary Education Office (PEO) |language=en}}</ref>

Each chamber of Parliament has equal powers, with the exception that the Senate may not introduce "money bills" (new taxes or laws authorising expenditure).<ref>{{Cite Legislation AU|Cth|act|coaca430|Australian Constitution|53}}</ref> However, the Senate can still block [[Appropriation bill|supply]] (the annual bill authorising government expenditure), but this has only happened once, during the [[1975 Australian constitutional crisis]].

{{Main|Government of Australia|}}

[[File:Government House Canberra.JPG|thumb|[[Government House, Canberra]], also known as "Yarralumla", is the official residence of the [[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]].]]The executive's primary role is to implement the laws passed by the Parliament. Unlike the other two branches of government however, membership of the executive is not clearly defined. One definition describes the executive as a pyramid, consisting of three layers. At the top stands The King, as the symbolic apex and formal repository of executive power. Below him lies a second layer made up of the prime-minister, cabinet and other minsters who in practice lead the executive. Finally, the bottom layer includes public servants, police, government departments and independent statutory bodies who directly implement policy and laws.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Separation of powers: Parliament, Executive and Judiciary |url=https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/system-of-government/separation-of-powers-parliament-executive-and-judiciary/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031132705/https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/system-of-government/separation-of-powers-parliament-executive-and-judiciary/ |archive-date=31 October 2023 |access-date=2023-11-08 |website=Parliamentary Education Office |publisher= |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Appleby |first=Gabrielle |date=2023-09-14 |title=Explainer: what is executive government and what does it have to do with the Voice to Parliament? |url=https://newsroom.unsw.edu.au/news/business-law/explainer-what-executive-government-and-what-does-it-have-do-voice-parliament |access-date=2023-11-14 |website=UNSW Newsroom |publisher=[[University of New South Wales]]}}</ref>

The Constitution of Australia does not recognise the Cabinet as a legal entity; it exists solely by convention. Its decisions do not in and of themselves have legal force. However, it serves as the practical expression of the [[Federal Executive Council (Australia)|Federal Executive Council]], which is Australia's highest formal executive governmental body. In practice, the Federal Executive Council meets solely to endorse and give legal force to decisions already made by the Cabinet.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why is it that the Prime Minister and Cabinet are not mentioned in the Australian Constitution? |url=https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/your-questions-on-notice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=http://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20230626070043/https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/your-questions-on-notice/questions/why-is-it-that-the-prime-minister-and-cabinet-are-not-mentioned-in-the-australian-constitution/ |archive-date=26 June 2023 |access-date=2023-08-05 |website=Parliamentary Education Office |language=en}}</ref> All members of the Cabinet are members of the Executive Council. While the governor-general is nominal presiding officer, they almost never attends Executive Council meetings. A senior member of the Cabinet holds the office of vice-president of the Executive Council and acts as presiding officer of the Executive Council in the absence of the governor-general.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Federal Executive Council |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/House_of_Representatives/Powers_practice_and_procedure/Practice7/HTML/Chapter2/Federal_Executive_Council |url-status=live |archive-url=http://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20230627030548/http://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/House_of_Representatives/Powers_practice_and_procedure/Practice7/HTML/Chapter2/Federal_Executive_Council |archive-date=27 June 2023 |access-date=2023-08-05 |website=Parliament of Australia |language=en-AU}}</ref>

Until 1956 all members of the ministry were members of the Cabinet. The growth of the ministry in the 1940s and 1950s made this increasingly impractical, and in 1956 [[Robert Menzies]] created a two-tier ministry, with only senior ministers holding Cabinet rank, also known within parliament as the [[front bench]]. This practice has been continued by all governments except the [[Gough Whitlam|Whitlam]] Government.<ref name="Museum of Australian Democracy at Old Parliament House-2015" />

As a federation, in Australia judicial power is exercised by both federal and state courts. However, unlike the [[UK law|UK's multiple legal systems]] there is only one legal system and like [[Law of Canada|Canada]] and unlike the [[US law|US]] there is only one common law of the nation, rather than a common law for each state.<ref>{{Cite AustLII|litigants=Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation|link=Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation|source=HCA|num=25|year=1997|parallelcite=(1997) 189 CLR 520, 563}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zines |first=Leslie |date=2004 |title=The Common Law in Australia: Its Nature and Constitutional Significance |url=https://classic.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/FedLawRw/2004/16.html |journal=Federal Law Review |volume=32 |issue=3 |via=[[Austlii]]}}</ref> Additionally, unlike Canada and the US, there is no distinct federal common law.<ref>{{Citation |last=Leeming |first=Mark |title=Common Law Within Three Federations |date=2007-11-08 |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=1027508 |type=SSRN Scholarly Paper |access-date=2023-12-11 |place=Rochester, NY |language=en |institution=University of Sydney}}</ref>

Until the passage of the [[Australia Act 1986|''Australia Act 1986'']], and associated legislation in the Parliament of the United Kingdom, some Australian cases could be referred to the British [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]] for final appeal. With this act, Australian law was made unequivocally sovereign, and the [[High Court of Australia]] was confirmed as the highest court of appeal. The theoretical possibility of the British Parliament enacting laws to override the Australian Constitution was also removed.<ref>{{cite web |date=4 December 1985 |title=Australia Act 1986 |url=https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2004A03181 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20170223181529/https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2004A03181 |archive-date=2017-02-23 |work=Federal Register of Legislation |publisher=[[Attorney-General's Department (Australia)]] |via=[[National Library of Australia]]}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

[[File:States of Australia (governing political parties).svg|thumb|Map showing the jurisdictions of Australia and their governing political parties as of March 2023.

Queensland is regarded as comparatively [[Conservatism in Australia|conservative]].<ref>{{Cite book|first=Margo|last=Daly|year=2003|title=The Rough Guide To Australia|url=https://archive.org/details/roughguidetosydn0000daly|url-access=registration|publisher=Rough Guides Ltd|isbn=9781843530909|page=397}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|first=Deborah|last=Penrith|year=2008|title=Live & Work in Australia|publisher=Crimson Publishing|isbn=9781854584182|page=478}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Georgia Waters |url=http://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/federal-election/face-it-queensland-were-conservative-20100823-13ftu.html |title=Why Labor struggles in Queensland |date=23 August 2010 |publisher=Brisbanetimes.com.au |access-date=5 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10410929 | publisher=BBC News | title=Australia ready for first female leader | date=25 June 2010}}</ref><ref name="Megalogenis-2010_1">George Megalogenis, [https://books.google.com/books?id=BHQzwqY1b90C&pg=PA121 "The Green and the Grey"], ''Quarterly Essay'', Vol. 40, 2010, p69.</ref> Victoria, Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory are regarded as comparatively [[left-wing politics|left of centre]].<ref name="Megalogenis-2010_1"/><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.theage.com.au/federal-election/victoria-the-leftleaning-state-20100807-11pi9.html | location=Melbourne | work=The Age | title=Victoria: the left-leaning state | date=8 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/state-election-2010/victoria-not-likely-to-lose-its-mantle-as-the-state-most-progressive-20101128-18cee.html | location=Melbourne | work=The Age | title=Victoria not likely to lose its mantle as the state most progressive | date=29 November 2010}}</ref><ref name="Megalogenis-2010_2">{{cite news| url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/poll-divides-the-nation-into-three-zones/story-fn59niix-1225908617129 | first=George | last=Megalogenis | title=Poll divides the nation into three zones | date=23 August 2010 | work=The Australian}}</ref> New South Wales, the largest state by population, as well as South Australia have often been regarded as politically moderate [[bellwether]] states.<ref name="Megalogenis-2010_2"/><ref name="Megalogenis-2010_1"/> Western Australia, by contrast, tends to be more politically volatile; regarded as the most conservative state during the 2000–10s,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mast |first1=Natalie |title=State of the states: why Labor's fortunes are on the rise in Western Australia |url=https://theconversation.com/state-of-the-states-why-labors-fortunes-are-on-the-rise-in-western-australia-59459 |website=The Conversation |access-date=22 May 2022}}</ref> it has lately swung to rank amongst the most left-leaning states in the country. It is also known for historical secessionist sentiments.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-03-14/the-wa-election-has-left-the-liberal-party-in-ruins-analysis/13244530 | title=The WA election has left the Liberals decimated and in the wilderness, facing a long road back | date=14 March 2021 | work=ABC}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.watoday.com.au/politics/federal/perth-turns-red-as-labor-delivers-election-bloodbath-in-wa-20220521-p5andp.html | title=Perth turns red as Labor delivers election bloodbath in WA | date=22 May 2022 | work= WAtoday}}</ref>

Local government in Australia is the lowest tier of government. Local governments are subject to the relevant [[states and territories of Australia|states and territories]]. There is only one level of local government in Australia; with none of the distinctive local government types seen in other [[English-speaking world|Anglophone]] nations. Most local governments within the states have equivalent powers to each other; styles such as ''shire'' or ''city'' have only historical meaning.

In contemporary Australian political culture, the Coalition (Liberal and National parties) is considered centre-right and the Australian Labor Party is considered centre-left.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bongiorno |first=Frank |title=Did Australia just make a move to the left? |url=http://theconversation.com/did-australia-just-make-a-move-to-the-left-183611 |access-date=2022-05-31 |website=The Conversation |language=en}}</ref> [[Conservatism in Australia|Australian conservatism]] is largely represented by the Coalition, along with [[Liberalism in Australia|Australian liberalism]]. The Labor Party categorises itself as [[social democracy|social democratic]],<ref>[http://d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloudfront.net/australianlaborparty/pages/121/attachments/original/1365135867/Labor_National_Platform.pdf?1365135867 Australian Labor Party National Platform] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923182841/http://d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloudfront.net/australianlaborparty/pages/121/attachments/original/1365135867/Labor_National_Platform.pdf?1365135867|date=23 September 2015}}. Retrieved 11 December 2014</ref> although it has pursued a liberal economic and social policy since the prime ministership of [[Bob Hawke]].<ref>Lavelle, A. The Death of Social Democracy. 2008. Ashgate Publishing.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Humphrys |first1=Elizabeth |title=How labour built neoliberalism : Australia's accord, the labour movement and the neoliberal project |date=2018 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-38346-3}}</ref>

Parliamentary Labor Party members such as [[Andrew Leigh]] have argued that the ALP should be reclassified as [[social liberalism|social liberal]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Leigh |first1=Andrew |title=Social liberalism fits Labor |url=https://www.thesaturdaypaper.com/opinion/topic/2019/06/29/social-liberalism-fits-labor/15617304008366 |access-date=15 July 2019 |work=The Saturday Paper |date=29 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Leigh |first1=Andrew |title=Liberals are conservatives while Labor is the true party of Alfred Deakin |url=https://www.theaustralian.com/national-affairs/opinion/liberals-are-conservatives-while-labor-is-the-true-party-of-alfred-deakin/news-story/396a97b83d76c5bbd0b60c5d048e7cea |access-date=15 July 2019 |work=The Australian}}</ref> The Labor Party still maintains its historical socialist objective in its constitution; however, it is seen by some as an ideological [[anachronism]] within the party.<ref>{{cite news |title=Fact check: Are Labor's policies socialist? |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-09-20/fact-check3a-are-labor27s-policies-socialist3f/8948552 |access-date=15 July 2019 |publisher=ABC News |date=20 September 2017 |language=en-AU}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Johnson |first1=Carol |title=Reviewing an anachronism? Labor to debate future of socialist objective |url=https://theconversation.com/reviewing-an-anachronism-labor-to-debate-future-of-socialist-objective-45233 |access-date=15 July 2019 |work=The Conversation |language=en}}</ref>

In recent decades there has been a marked shift amongst the Australian electorate in providing their first preference votes to candidates not belonging to either of the two major parties. At the [[2022 Australian federal election|2022 federal election]] 31% gave their preference to a non-major party candidate .<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/elections/federal/2022/results/party-totals|title=Party Totals|publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]|access-date=2022-12-15|author=Antony Green}}</ref>

Minor parties in Australian politics include a [[green politics|green]] party, the [[Australian Greens]], the largest of the minor parties; a [[Centrism|centrist]] party, [[Centre Alliance]]; a [[Nationalism|nationalist]] party, [[Pauline Hanson's One Nation]]; and a [[Right-wing politics|right-wing]] agrarian party, [[Katter's Australian Party]]. Other significant parties in recent years have included, the [[Clive Palmer]] led [[United Australia Party (2013)|United Australia Party]] (not to be confused with the historical incarnation that was the predecessor to the Liberal party) and the [[social conservatism|socially conservative]] [[Family First Party]], among others. Historically significant parties have included the [[United Australia Party]], the [[Australian Labor Party (Anti-Communist)]], the [[Communist Party of Australia]], the socially liberal [[Australian Democrats]] among others.

A collection of climate conscious, socially progressive and [[economically liberal]] independents known as the [[Teal independents|teals]] were elected in the 2022 election, taking many seats previously held by moderate Liberal Party members.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Wahlquist |first=Calla |date=2022-05-23 |title=Teal independents: who are they and how did they upend Australia’s election? |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/may/23/teal-independents-who-are-they-how-did-they-upend-australia-election |access-date=2023-12-12 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kenny |first=Mark |author-link=Mark Kenny (journalist) |date=2023-11-12 |title=Halfway through their term, the 'teal' MPs look here to stay – and may present a huge challenge in 2025 |url=http://theconversation.com/halfway-through-their-term-the-teal-mps-look-here-to-stay-and-may-present-a-huge-challenge-in-2025-216528 |access-date=2023-12-01 |website=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]] |language=en-US}}</ref>

![[Democratic Labor Party (historical)|Democratic<br />Labor]]

* {{Cite book |last=Pyke |first=John |title=Government powers under a Federal Constitution: Constitutional Law in Australia |date= |publisher=Lawbook Co (Thomas Reuters) |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-455-24415-0 |edition=2nd |location=Pyrmont, NSW |language=en |oclc=1140000411}}