View source for Pacheco's disease

You do not have permission to edit this page, for the following reasons:

This IP address has been blocked from editing Wikipedia.
This does not affect your ability to read Wikipedia pages.
Most people who see this message have done nothing wrong. Some kinds of blocks restrict editing from specific service providers or telecom companies in response to recent abuse or vandalism, and can sometimes affect other users who are unrelated to that abuse. Review the information below for assistance if you do not believe that you have done anything wrong.

The IP address or range 44.195.0.0/16 has been blocked by ‪Blablubbs‬ for the following reason(s):

The IP address that you are currently using has been blocked because it is believed to be a web host provider or colocation provider. To prevent abuse, web hosts and colocation providers may be blocked from editing Wikipedia.
You will not be able to edit Wikipedia using a web host or colocation provider because it hides your IP address, much like a proxy or VPN.
We recommend that you attempt to use another connection to edit. For example, if you use a proxy or VPN to connect to the internet, turn it off when editing Wikipedia. If you edit using a mobile connection, try using a Wi-Fi connection, and vice versa. If you are using a corporate internet connection, switch to a different Wi-Fi network. If you have a Wikipedia account, please log in.
If you do not have any other way to edit Wikipedia, you will need to request an IP block exemption.

How to appeal if you are confident that your connection does not use a colocation provider's IP address:
If you are confident that you are not using a web host, you may appeal this block by adding the following text on your talk page: {{unblock|reason=Caught by a colocation web host block but this host or IP is not a web host. My IP address is _______. Place any further information here. ~~~~}}. You must fill in the blank with your IP address for this block to be investigated. Your IP address can be determined here. Alternatively, if you wish to keep your IP address private you can use the unblock ticket request system. There are several reasons you might be editing using the IP address of a web host or colocation provider (such as if you are using VPN software or a business network); please use this method of appeal only if you think your IP address is in fact not a web host or colocation provider.

Administrators: The IP block exemption user right should only be applied to allow users to edit using web host in exceptional circumstances, and requests should usually be directed to the functionaries team via email. If you intend to give the IPBE user right, a CheckUser needs to take a look at the account. This can be requested most easily at SPI Quick Checkuser Requests. Unblocking an IP or IP range with this template is highly discouraged without at least contacting the blocking administrator.

This block will expire on 09:46, 11 January 2025. Your current IP address is 44.195.82.82.

Even when blocked, you will usually still be able to edit your user talk page, as well as email administrators and other editors.

For information on how to proceed, please read the FAQ for blocked users and the guideline on block appeals. The guide to appealing blocks may also be helpful.

Other useful links: Blocking policy · Help:I have been blocked
This IP address range has been globally blocked.
This does not affect your ability to read Wikipedia pages.
Most people who see this message have done nothing wrong. Some kinds of blocks restrict editing from specific service providers or telecom companies in response to recent abuse or vandalism, and can sometimes affect other users who are unrelated to that abuse. Review the information below for assistance if you do not believe that you have done anything wrong.

This block affects editing on all Wikimedia wikis.
The IP address or range 44.195.0.0/16 has been globally blocked by ‪AntiCompositeNumber‬ for the following reason(s):

Open proxy/Webhost: Visit the FAQ if you are affected

This block will expire on 13:55, 18 January 2025. Your current IP address is 44.195.82.82.

Even while globally blocked, you will usually still be able to edit pages on Meta-Wiki.

If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki. You could also send an email to the stewards VRT queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details.

Other useful links: Global blocks · Help:I have been blocked

You can view and copy the source of this page:

{{Short description|Viral disease in parrots}}
{{Virusbox
| name = Pacheco's disease
| image_alt = 
| image_caption = 
| parent = Iltovirus
| species = Psittacid alphaherpesvirus 1<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" />
| synonyms = Herpes hepatosplenitis<ref name=":13" />
}}

'''Pacheco's disease''' is a highly [[Infection|infectious]] and [[Acute (medicine)|acute]] bird disease caused by a species of [[herpesvirus]], '''''Psittacid alphaherpesvirus 1''''' (PsHV-1).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Ramis|first1=Antonio|last2=Tarrés|first2=Jordi|last3=Fondevila|first3=Dolors|last4=Ferrer|first4=Luis|date=September 1996|title=Immunocytochemical study of the pathogenesis of Pacheco's parrot disease in budgerigars|journal=Veterinary Microbiology|volume=52|issue=1–2|pages=49–61|doi=10.1016/0378-1135(96)00062-4|pmid=8914250|issn=0378-1135}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Tomaszewski|first1=E.|last2=Wilson|first2=V. G.|last3=Wigle|first3=W. L.|last4=Phalen|first4=D. N.|date=2001-02-01|title=Detection and Heterogeneity of Herpesviruses Causing Pacheco's Disease in Parrots|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|volume=39|issue=2|pages=533–538|doi=10.1128/jcm.39.2.533-538.2001|pmid=11158102|pmc=87771|issn=0095-1137|doi-access=free}}</ref> All [[Psittacinae|psittacine]] species are susceptible to Pacheco's disease, mainly those in zoological collections and aviaries in any geographic regions.<ref name=":0" /> Pacheco's disease most commonly occurs in [[Amazon parrot]]s, followed by [[Grey parrot|African grey parrots]], parrots, [[macaw]]s, [[cockatoo]]s and [[conure]]s.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=Tomaszewski|first1=Elizabeth K.|last2=Kaleta|first2=Erhard F.|last3=Phalen|first3=David N.|date=2003-10-15|title=Molecular Phylogeny of the Psittacid Herpesviruses Causing Pacheco's Disease: Correlation of Genotype with Phenotypic Expression|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=77|issue=20|pages=11260–11267|doi=10.1128/jvi.77.20.11260-11267.2003|pmid=14512573|pmc=224986|issn=0022-538X}}</ref> Due to a very high mortality rate within these susceptible species, concerns are brought to companion bird markets and breeders.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|website=Department of Environment and Heritage|date=2006|title=Hygiene Protocols for the Prevention and Control of Diseases (Particularly Beak and Feather Disease) in Australian Birds|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/9349e95b-85ec-4c40-a457-1a9fdcb76642/files/hygiene-protocols-all.pdf|access-date=25 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Thureen|first1=Dean R.|last2=Keeler|first2=Calvin L.|date=2006-08-15|title=Psittacid Herpesvirus 1 and Infectious Laryngotracheitis Virus: Comparative Genome Sequence Analysis of Two Avian Alphaherpesviruses|journal=Journal of Virology|volume=80|issue=16|pages=7863–7872|doi=10.1128/jvi.00134-06|pmid=16873243|pmc=1563825|issn=0022-538X}}</ref>

The main sign of Pacheco's disease is a sudden and rapid death of birds. It is often preceded by short, severe illnesses, which includes [[Diarrhea|diarrhoea]], [[lethargy]], [[Anorexia (symptom)|anorexia]] and inactivity.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Galisky|first1=E.|last2=O'Brien|first2=S.|date=1987-01-01|title=Pacheco's Disease|url=https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/iowastate_veterinarian/vol49/iss2/5|journal=Iowa State University Veterinarian|volume=49|issue=2|issn=0099-5851}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book|date=2003-01-01|editor-last=Schmidt|editor-first=Robert E.|editor2-last=Reavill|editor2-first=Drury R.|editor3-last=Phalen|editor3-first=David N.|title=Pathology of Pet and Aviary Birds|publisher=Wiley |doi=10.1002/9780470376836|isbn=9780470376836}}</ref> The virus is transmitted between birds through ingestion, by contaminated food or water, as well as through [[inhalation]] and conjunctival exposure.<ref name=":2" /> The rate that the virus can spread is highly influenced by its environment and living conditions.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Abdala|first=Nádia|date=1994-01-12|title=Development of an Experimental ELISA for the Detection of Antigens and Antibodies to the Virus of Pacheco Disease using Monoclonal Antibodies|journal=Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Series B|volume=41|issue=1–10|pages=369–380|doi=10.1111/j.1439-0450.1994.tb00240.x|issn=0931-1793}}</ref> Birds can then develop signs and symptoms weeks after being in contact with the virus.<ref name="Doneley 2016">{{cite book|last1=Doneley|first1=Bob|title=Avian Medicine and Surgery in Practice: Companion and Aviary Birds|date=2016|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=9781482260199|edition=2nd|pages=251–264|chapter=Chapter 17: Disorders of the Liver}}</ref> If a bird survives Pacheco's disease, it may later develop [[Papilloma|internal papilloma disease]] in its [[gastrointestinal tract]].<ref name="Doneley 2016" />

Pacheco's disease is diagnosed through a DNA probe or chemical and serological testings.<ref name=":13">{{Citation|last1=Harris|first1=Don J.|title=Avian Infectious Diseases|date=2006|work=Saunders Manual of Small Animal Practice|pages=1740–1757|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-7216-0422-0|last2=Oglesbee|first2=Barbara L.|doi=10.1016/b0-72-160422-6/50171-6}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last1=Ramis|first1=A.|last2=Fondevila|first2=Dolors|last3=Tarres|first3=J.|last4=Ferrer|first4=L.|date=September 1992|title=Immunocytochemical diagnosis of Pacheco's disease|journal=Avian Pathology|language=en|volume=21|issue=3|pages=523–527|doi=10.1080/03079459208418872|pmid=18670969|issn=0307-9457}}</ref> No vaccine directly cures Pacheco's disease. There are only treatments with [[Aciclovir|acyclovir]] and formalin-inactivated vaccine that helps prevent the virus from replicating.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Smith|first=C. Gregory|date=1987|title=Use of Acyclovir in an Outbreak of Pacheco's Parrot Disease|journal=AAV Today|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=55–56|doi=10.2307/30134362|jstor=30134362}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|title=Pacheco's Parrot Disease in Macaws of the Lisbon's Zoological Garden. Description of an Outbreak, Diagnosis and Management, Including Vaccination|last1=M|first1=Barão Da Cunha|last2=Jj|first2=Correia|date=November 2007 |language=en|pmid=18077933|last3=T|first3=Fagulha|last4=M|first4=Fevereiro|last5=Mc|first5=Peleteiro|last6=G|first6=Vollrath|last7=Ef|first7=Kaleta|journal=DTW. Deutsche Tierarztliche Wochenschrift|volume=114|issue=11|pages=423–8}}</ref>

The first case of Pacheco's disease occurred in Brazil in 1930.<ref name=":1" /> Since then, there have been multiple outbreaks globally including in Europe, Japan, Middle East and the [[United States|U.S]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|date=2017|title=Psittacid Herpesviruses and Mucosal Papillomas of birds in Australia|url=https://www.wildlifehealthaustralia.com.au/Portals/0/Documents/FactSheets/Avian/Psittacine%20Herpesvirus%20and%20Papillomatosis%20in%20Australian%20Birds%20Feb%202017%20(2.4).pdf |website=Wildlife Health Australia|access-date=24 May 2020}}</ref> The main source of these outbreaks is mainly due to the importation of birds.<ref name=":3" /> The disease is named after the veterinarian {{ill|Genésio Pacheco|pt}} (1890–1973), who first described the disease in 1930 while working at the [[Biological Institute (São Paulo)|Biological Institute of São Paulo]] in Brazil.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Giambrone |first1=Joseph J. |title=Pacheco's Parrot Disease: A Serious Threat to the Pet Bird Industry |journal=Auburn Veterinarian |date=1985 |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=4–5}}</ref>

==Signs and symptoms==
[[File:Amazona aestiva -Paradise Wildlife Park, Hertfordshire, England-8a.jpg|thumb|An uninfected blue-fronted Amazon parrot; one of the vulnerable species to carry and transmit Pacheco's disease]]

Birds infected with Pacheco's disease usually experience minor signs and symptoms that appear right before or after its death. Birds can have a watery, yellowish to greenish discolouration of urates and faeces or have moist droppings.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=Gravendyck|first1=M.|last2=Balks|first2=Elisabeth|last3=Schröder-Gravendyck|first3=Astrid-Sabine|last4=Eskens|first4=U.|last5=Frank|first5=H.|last6=Marschang|first6=Rachel E.|last7=Kaleta|first7=E. F.|date=October 1998|title=Quantification of the herpesvirus content in various tissues and organs, and associated post mortem lesions of psittacine birds which died during an epornithic of pacheco's parrot disease (PPD)|journal=Avian Pathology|language=en|volume=27|issue=5|pages=478–489|doi=10.1080/03079459808419372|pmid=18484032|issn=0307-9457|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":6" /> They can experience mucoid discharges from the nostrils, such as in [[Blue-and-yellow macaw|blue-and-gold macaws]] and [[Amazon parrot]]s'','' or a regurgitation of clear sanguineous fluids.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last1=Panigrahy|first1=B.|last2=Grumbles|first2=L. C.|date=July 1984|title=Pacheco's Disease in Psittacine Birds|journal=Avian Diseases|volume=28|issue=3|pages=808–12|doi=10.2307/1590254|jstor=1590254|pmid=6091610|issn=0005-2086}}</ref><ref name=":6" /> As the disease progresses, birds can become difficult to arouse, experience [[lethargy]] and [[somnolence]] as well as lose interest in eating and its normal daily activities.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last1=Godwin|first1=J. S.|last2=Jacobson|first2=E. R.|last3=Gaskin|first3=J. M.|date=1982|title=Effects of Pacheco's Parrot Disease Virus on Hematologic and Blood Chemistry Values of Quaker Parrots (Myopsitta monachus)|journal=The Journal of Zoo Animal Medicine|volume=13|issue=3|pages=127|doi=10.2307/20094596|jstor=20094596|issn=0093-4526}}</ref> Birds can also display signs of extreme depression only hours before its death.<ref name=":1" /> However, due to the short duration of infection and lack of severe clinical signs indicating a presence of the [[herpesvirus]], birds that experience a rapid death are found in excellent bodily conditions with full crops.<ref name=":6" /> Infected birds often do not live long enough for the collection of its blood for testing or diagnoses.<ref name=":7" />

Laboratory tests can also display the abnormalities of tissues, such as a [[liver]] with pale yellow to brown patches in [[Necrosis|necrotic]] areas.<ref name=":9" /> Examinations mainly present [[lesion]]s in the [[liver]] and [[spleen]], such as an enlargement of both organs with diffuse patches of necrosis and the bleeding of broken capillaries ([[Petechia|petechial haemorrhage]]).<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":0"/> There can also be minimal to no inflammatory response surrounding the necrotic areas.<ref name=":10" /> By comparing these signs and symptoms to a healthy liver that displays no signs of reactions, this indicates a presence of the herpesvirus infection.

External and environmental changes can promote the spread of the disease and increase virulence.<ref name=":8" /> Importing birds from a warm to cold environment and stress due to overcrowding can trigger outbreaks of Pacheco's disease.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last1=Gaskin|first1=J.M.|last2=Robbins|first2=C.M.|last3=Jacobson|first3=Elliott|date=1978-01-01|title=An explosive outbreak of Pacheco's parrot disease and preliminary experimental findings|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291894144|journal=Proceeding in American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, Knoxville, Tennessee, Pp|pages=241–253}}</ref>

==Cause==
{{See also|Herpesviridae}}
The virus ''Psittacid alphaherpesvirus 1'' is the [[Cause (medicine)|etiologic agent]] that causes Pacheco's disease. This virus species is closely related to ''[[Gallid alphaherpesvirus 1]]''.<ref name=":4" /> It was initially identified as a herpesvirus by examining its virion size, sensitivity to [[ether]], the formation of intranuclear inclusions, its ability to thicken the nuclear membranes of the host cells.<ref name=":10" />

Pacheco's disease is caused by at least three different [[serotype]]s of the herpesvirus.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Kaleta|first=E. F.|date=1990-04-01|title=Herpesviruses of birds - a review|journal=Avian Pathology|volume=19|issue=2|pages=193–211|doi=10.1080/03079459008418673|issn=0307-9457|pmid=18679931|doi-access=free}}</ref> The most common strain that causes Pacheco's disease is Serotype 1. This is followed by Serotype 2 and less frequently, Serotype 3.<ref name=":5" /> In curing Pacheco's disease, the vaccine developed must protect the birds against these main three [[serotype]]s.<ref name=":12" />

===Transmission===
Although there is no exact route of transmission, Pacheco's disease is not transmissible by humans''.'' <ref name=":7" /> It is also not transmissible to other common laboratory animals, including [[guinea pig]]s, [[Mouse|mice]] as well as other certain bird species, such as pigeons and canaries.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last1=Simpson|first1=C. F.|last2=Hanley|first2=J. E.|last3=Gaskin|first3=J. M.|date=1975-04-01|title=Psittacine Herpesvirus Infection Resembling Pacheco's Parrot Disease|journal=Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=131|issue=4|pages=390–396|doi=10.1093/infdis/131.4.390|pmid=163868|issn=0022-1899}}</ref><ref name=":11" /> Adult birds that are infected with the [[Herpesviridae|herpesvirus]] causing Pacheco's disease can transmit and infect their parent-fed offspring, who may not develop signs.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Schmidt, Robert E., Reavill, Drury R. & Phalen, David N|title=Pathology of Pet and Aviary Birds - 2nd Edition|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|year=2015|isbn=978-1-118-82809-0|location=Singapore}}</ref>

Pacheco's disease is usually spread by aerolisation or contact.<ref name=":10" /> The main sources of contraction is through the [[Feces|faeces]], oral and [[Pharyngeal consonant|pharyngeal]] secretions of carrier birds where the virus has shed, or through contaminated food or water.<ref name=":13" /> Once a bird has been infected and recovers from Pacheco's disease, it is permanently immune and becomes a carrier of the disease, whether it displays symptoms or not.<ref name=":6" /> Carrier birds are still able to transmit the virus to healthy birds. These latently infected birds then become a potential source for future outbreaks as well as a spread of mucosal papillomas''.''<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last1=Tomaszewski|first1=Elizabeth K.|last2=Wigle|first2=William|last3=Phalen|first3=David N.|date=November 2006|title=Tissue Distribution of Psittacid Herpesviruses in Latently Infected Parrots, Repeated Sampling of Latently Infected Parrots and Prevalence of Latency in Parrots Submitted for Necropsy|journal=Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation|volume=18|issue=6|pages=536–544|doi=10.1177/104063870601800603|pmid=17121080|issn=1040-6387|doi-access=free}}</ref> This makes it essential for all recently imported [[Psittacinae|psittacine]] birds to be tested for the presence of the herpesvirus before entering a resident of aviaries.<ref name=":9" /> Droppings of resident birds are also screened periodically to determine the presence of the virus.<ref name=":3" /> Infected birds are quarantined and isolated from the rest of the birds to prevent any further transmissions or deaths.

== Diagnosis ==
Pacheco's disease can be diagnosed both antemortem and post-mortem. By diagnosing an infected bird antemortem, a [[Hybridization probe|DNA probe]] runs serologically and detects the virus within the bird's internal system, mainly to find asymptomatic carriers.<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":19">{{Cite web|title=VetFolio|url=https://www.vetfolio.com/learn/article/avian-viral-serology|website=www.vetfolio.com|access-date=2020-05-25}}</ref> This theoretically tests for all known herpesvirus serotypes that infect the birds and involves taking samples from the bird's oral cavity or cloaca, where the virus can be consistently detected in most parrots.<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":13" /> However, readings can often present a misleading indication that there is no presence of Pacheco's disease as a result of samples being collected at the time the bird is not shedding the herpesvirus.<ref name=":13" /> The detection of the virus through the DNA probe also helps identify a contaminated environment the bird has recently been exposed to.<ref name=":20">{{Cite web|title=Test Results|url=https://vet.uga.edu/diagnostic-service-labs/infectious-diseases-lab/test-results/|website=University of Georgia College of Veterinary Medicine|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-25}}</ref>

An indirect [[immunoperoxidase]] method is another chemically sensitive and specific testing that laboratories have used to arrive at a reliable result in making a [[Histopathology|histopathological]] diagnosis of Pacheco's disease.<ref name=":14" /> This test does not require highly complex devices or sources. It detects the presence of the avian alpha-herpesvirus, which is the [[Disease causative agent|causative agent]], through an antiserum obtained in SPF chickens as well as another serum obtained from rabbit anti-chicken IgG that is conjugated with [[horseradish peroxidase]].<ref name=":14" /> By applying this test on post-mortem tissues, dark dispersed spotting on the liver and small intestines in necrotic areas display an indication of a reaction to the viral antigen.<ref name=":14" /> This is possible due to the high degree of contrast between the viral antigen and host cell that allows a detection of Pacheco's disease.<ref name=":14" /> This approach has successfully confirmed diagnoses in [[Psittacinae|psittacine]] birds that were previously diagnosed with Pacheco's disease based on its clinical features and macroscopic lesions, indicating its accuracy and reliability.<ref name=":14" />

Serologic testing is another diagnosis method that detects the virus within the birds through [[antibody]] tests and overseeing the bird's [[Antibody titer|antibody tiers]].<ref name=":20" /> This test involves observing the titre levels in paired serum samples.<ref name=":20" /> Increasing titres indicate a recent infection while decreasing titres indicate that the antibodies in the immune system is no longer being stimulated.<ref name=":20" /> However, these antibody tests are not as helpful in diagnosing birds that are already sick or those birds that do not live long enough to compare titres.<ref name=":19" /> A bird infected with Pacheco's disease's virus [[Antibody titer|antibody titre]] is considered latently infected.

== Treatment ==
[[File:Acyclovir 3D.png|thumb|The molecular structure of Acyclovir, an antiviral medication that acts as an inhibitor to reduce the replication rate of the virus within affected birds.]]
There is no effective vaccine that completely cures Pacheco's disease in infected birds. It is difficult to establish an effective treatment for Pacheco's disease as birds can suddenly die without displaying any symptoms.<ref name=":14" /> However, there have been successful uses of [[Aciclovir|acyclovir]], an antiviral medication, in reducing high death rates by rapidly inhibiting the virus replication within the birds.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":15" /> Acyclovir is a synthetic acyclic [[purine]] [[nucleoside]] that has strong activity against certain members of the herpesvirus group.<ref name=":15" /> It is given to birds in the form of [[oral administration]] for numerous days or in an IV form.<ref name=":13" /> [[Aciclovir|Acyclovir]] has decreased morbidity and mortality during multiple Pacheco's disease outbreaks''.''<ref name=":13" /> However, it cannot prevent the establishment of the carrier and latent infections.<ref name=":6" /> This means that [[Aciclovir|acyclovir]] cannot be used to cure the virus infection and infected birds will remain infected and become a carrier throughout its lifetime''.'' <ref name=":7" />

An autogenous, formalin-inactivated vaccine, with an [[adjuvant]] of aluminium, hydroxide gel, has similarly been used in an outbreak, in 1999, to successfully protect psittacine birds from Pacheco's disease.<ref name=":16" /> This vaccine was used to stop the rapid spread of the virus and helped maintain morbidity and mortality rates in psittacine birds within the zoo.<ref name=":16" /> By injecting this in the birds, it effectively contained the outbreak, where no herpesvirus was isolated from faecal samples of the many psittacine birds after the outbreak occurred.<ref name=":16" />

== Epidemiology ==
The first recognised case of Pacheco's disease occurred in 1930 in Brazil from birds that were imported from South America.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Mayer|first1=Joerg|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ksyx3o5KsNIC&q=Mayer,+J.,+&pg=PP1|title=Clinical Veterinary Advisor: Birds and Exotic Pets|last2=DACLAM|first2=Thomas M. Donnelly, BVSc|date=2012-12-06|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-1-4160-3969-3|language=en}}</ref> It was not until 1933 when the [[Disease causative agent|causative agent]] was identified.<ref name=":1" /> Since then, the global spread of Pacheco's disease has increased as a result of domestically raised birds or the transportation of aviaries that contains symptomatic and asymptomatic infected birds.

=== Outbreaks ===
In February 1933, an outbreak occurred in [[Campania]], Italy. A shipment of 93 psittacine birds was imported to Campania, Italy, from [[Guyana (disambiguation)|Guayana]], South America.<ref name=":21">{{Cite journal|last1=Magnino|first1=S.|last2=Conzo|first2=G.|last3=Fioretti|first3=A.|last4=Menna|first4=L. F.|last5=Rampin|first5=T.|last6=Sironi|first6=G.|last7=Fabbi|first7=M.|last8=Kaleta|first8=E. F.|date=1996-01-12|title=An Outbreak of Pacheco's Parrot Disease in Psittacine Birds Recently Imported to Campania, Italy: Isolation of Psittacid Herpesvirus 2|journal=Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Series B|volume=43|issue=1–10|pages=631–637|doi=10.1111/j.1439-0450.1996.tb00362.x|pmid=9011159|issn=0931-1793}}</ref> It contained [[macaw]]s, [[Amazon parrot]]s, [[conure]]s and [[parakeet]]s, who were all transferred to quarantine premises and were housed in cages, based on its size and genera.<ref name=":21" /> All birds arrived in good and healthy conditions and were previously vaccinated against PPD and [[Poxviridae]] with a commercial vaccine containing PsiHV1''.''<ref name=":21" /> However, three of the Conure parakeets suddenly died without displaying any relevant symptoms, followed by the rest of its species.<ref name=":21" /> While certain species experienced high mortality rates, others had not, such as ''A. manilata'', ''B. cbyoptems'' and ''A. mehnocepbala''.<ref name=":21" /><!-- what species are these? --> In this instance, the vaccine failed to serve its purpose as the vaccine only protected the birds against 1 serotype, rather than all 3 known serotypes that cause Pacheco's disease.<ref name=":21" /> This raised concerns about how vaccines relating to Pacheco's disease should be developed in an attempt to protect birds from Pacheco's disease.<ref name=":21" />

The US has encountered numerous psittacine-disease related incidents linking to Pacheco's disease:

In December 1977 and January 1978, multiple outbreaks had occurred in a privately owned bird import quarantine station that was located in Miami, Florida. In the first incident, the Floridan aviary imported three macaws from California into an aviary of eighteen healthy birds.<ref name=":11" /> This consisted of seven macaws, eight cockatoos, two [[hornbill]]s and one [[myna]]h bird.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":17" /> Within a week, the newly imported macaws had died, followed by the other macaws and cockatoos that were originally residing in the Floridian aviary.<ref name=":11" /> The non-psittacine birds exposed to the virus spreading around in the aviary were not affected in this situation and survived the outbreak.<ref name=":17" /> In the second incident, two macaws and one cockatoo that were imported had died.<ref name=":11" /> The high mortality rate in this aviary was largely influenced by the overcrowding and stressful environment of the birds.<ref name=":11" /> This provided an ideal setting for Pacheco's disease to spread via bird-to-bird transmission.<ref name=":11" /> Examinations of the birds that were presented for necropsy showed that each died suddenly without clear evidence of any sicknesses other than [[lethargy]].<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last1=Simpson|first1=Charles F.|last2=Hanley|first2=J. E.|date=1977|title=Pacheco's Parrot Disease of Psittacine Birds|journal=Avian Diseases|volume=21|issue=2|pages=209–219|doi=10.2307/1589341|jstor=1589341|pmid=194568|issn=0005-2086}}</ref> There are no linkages between both outbreaks.<ref name=":22" />

In March 1991, an outbreak had occurred in an aviary in [[Wyoming]], despite being closed to newly introduced birds for four years.<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last1=O'Toole|first1=Donal|last2=Haven|first2=Tom|last3=Driscoll|first3=Mike|last4=Nunamaker|first4=Carol|date=April 1992|title=An Outbreak of Pacheco's Disease in an Aviary of Psittacines|journal=Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation|volume=4|issue=2|pages=203–205|doi=10.1177/104063879200400220|pmid=1319750|issn=1040-6387|doi-access=free}}</ref> Several bird species had died in this outbreak, including two [[Golden-mantled rosella|golden mantle rosellas]], two [[Red-fronted Parakeet|red-fronted parakeets]], a [[Senegal parrot|yellow-bellied parrot]], and a [[Yellow-headed amazon|double-yellow headed Amazon parrot]].<ref name=":23" /> These six birds showed few to no premonitory signs over the two weeks they resided in the aviary before its death.<ref name=":23" /> Medical examinations showed an absence of gross lesions while the clinical signs confirmed Pacheco's disease as cause of death. This included watery, green [[Diarrhea|diarrhoea]] as well as depression that terminated in death within a day.<ref name=":23" /> It is suspected that the [[Black-headed parrot|black-headed caique parrots]] or [[Blue and Gold Macaw|blue-and-gold macaws]] in the aviary were carriers of the virus.<ref name=":23" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Herpesvirales}}
{{Viruses}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q24808650|from2=Q18965139}}

[[Category:Alphaherpesvirinae]]
[[Category:Animal viral diseases]]
[[Category:Bird diseases]]

Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page (help):

Template:; (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Anglicise rank (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Citation (view source) (protected)
Template:Cite book (view source) (protected)
Template:Cite journal (view source) (protected)
Template:Cite web (view source) (protected)
Template:Delink (view source) (protected)
Template:Don't edit this line always display (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Don't edit this line extinct (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Don't edit this line link target (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Don't edit this line link text (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Don't edit this line parent (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Don't edit this line rank (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Don't edit this line same as (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Edit taxonomy (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Herpesvirales (edit)
Template:Hlist/styles.css (view source) (protected)
Template:Icon (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Ill (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Interlanguage link (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Is italic taxon (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Main other (view source) (protected)
Template:Navbox (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Nobold (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Nobold/styles.css (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Pagetype (view source) (protected)
Template:Principal rank (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Reflist (view source) (protected)
Template:Reflist/styles.css (view source) (protected)
Template:SDcat (view source) (protected)
Template:See also (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Separated entries (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Short description (view source) (protected)
Template:Short description/lowercasecheck (view source) (protected)
Template:Str left (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Taxobox/Error colour (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Taxobox/core (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Taxobox/core/styles.css (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Taxobox colour (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Taxonbar (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Taxonbar/candidate (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Taxonomy (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Taxonomy/Alphaherpesvirinae (edit)
Template:Taxonomy/Duplodnaviria (edit)
Template:Taxonomy/Herpesvirales (edit)
Template:Taxonomy/Herpesviridae (edit)
Template:Taxonomy/Herviviricetes (edit)
Template:Taxonomy/Heunggongvirae (edit)
Template:Taxonomy/Iltovirus (edit)
Template:Taxonomy/Life (view source) (template editor protected)
Template:Taxonomy/Peploviricota (edit)
Template:Taxonomy/Virus (view source) (semi-protected)
Template:Virus topics (edit)
Template:Virusbox (view source) (semi-protected)
Template:Viruses (edit)
Module:Arguments (view source) (protected)
Module:Autotaxobox (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Autovirusbox (view source) (semi-protected)
Module:Check for unknown parameters (view source) (protected)
Module:Citation/CS1 (view source) (protected)
Module:Citation/CS1/COinS (view source) (protected)
Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration (view source) (protected)
Module:Citation/CS1/Date validation (view source) (protected)
Module:Citation/CS1/Identifiers (view source) (protected)
Module:Citation/CS1/Utilities (view source) (protected)
Module:Citation/CS1/Whitelist (view source) (protected)
Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css (view source) (protected)
Module:Delink (view source) (protected)
Module:Disambiguation/templates (view source) (protected)
Module:Format link (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Hatnote (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Hatnote/styles.css (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Hatnote list (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Icon (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Icon/data (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Italic title (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Labelled list hatnote (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Navbar (view source) (protected)
Module:Navbar/configuration (view source) (protected)
Module:Navbar/styles.css (view source) (protected)
Module:Navbox (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Navbox/configuration (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Navbox/styles.css (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Pagetype (view source) (protected)
Module:Pagetype/config (view source) (protected)
Module:Pagetype/disambiguation (view source) (protected)
Module:Pagetype/rfd (view source) (protected)
Module:Pagetype/setindex (view source) (protected)
Module:Pagetype/softredirect (view source) (protected)
Module:ResolveEntityId (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:SDcat (view source) (protected)
Module:Separated entries (view source) (protected)
Module:String (view source) (protected)
Module:TableTools (view source) (protected)
Module:TaxonItalics (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Taxonbar (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Taxonbar/candidate (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Taxonbar/conf (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Taxonbar/exists (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Taxonbar/whitelist (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Template redirect regex (view source) (template editor protected)
Module:Wikitext Parsing (view source) (protected)
Module:Yesno (view source) (protected)

Return to Pacheco's disease.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacheco%27s_disease"