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{{Short description|none}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2024}}
'''International relations since 1989''' covers the main trends in world affairs in the [[post–Cold War era]].

==Trends==
The 21st century has been marked by growing [[economic globalization]] and integration, with consequent increased risk to interlinked economies, as exemplified by the [[Great Recession]].<ref>Bob Davis, "What's a Global Recession?", ''The Wall Street Journal'', April 22, 2009. [https://blogs.wsj.com/economics/2009/04/22/whats-a-global-recession/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228002745/https://blogs.wsj.com/economics/2009/04/22/whats-a-global-recession/|date=February 28, 2019}} Retrieved January 2, 2019.</ref> This period has also seen the expansion of communications with mobile phones and the Internet, which have caused fundamental societal changes in business, politics, and how individuals networked along common interests and sought information.
[[File:Pudong Shanghai November 2017 panorama.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|China urbanized rapidly after 1989 and grew the second largest economy (Shanghai pictured).]]
Worldwide competition for [[Natural resources|resources]] has risen due to growing populations and industrialization, especially in India, China, and Brazil. The increased demands are contributing to increased [[environmental degradation]] and to [[global warming]].

International tensions were heightened in connection with the efforts of some [[List of states with nuclear weapons|nuclear-armed states]] to induce North Korea to give up its [[nuclear weapons]], and to prevent Iran from developing nuclear weapons.{{sfn|Sherman|2018}}

In 2020, the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] became the first pandemic since 1919 to substantially disrupt global trading and cause recessions in the global economy.<ref>Prince Asare, and Richard Barfi, "The Impact of Covid-19 Pandemic on the Global Economy: Emphasis on Poverty Alleviation and Economic Growth." ''Economics'' 8.1 (2021): 32–43 [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Prince_Vitenu-Sackey/publication/348162269_The_Impact_of_Covid-19_Pandemic_on_the_Global_Economy_Emphasis_on_Poverty_Alleviation_and_Economic_Growth/links/5ff1611c45851553a0151517/The-Impact-of-Covid-19-Pandemic-on-the-Global-Economy-Emphasis-on-Poverty-Alleviation-and-Economic-Growth.pdf online].</ref>

===1990s===
{{Main|1990s}}

The 1990s saw a dramatic advance in technology, with the [[History of the World Wide Web|World Wide Web]].<ref>Niels Brügger, ed, ''Web25: Histories from the first 25 years of the world wide web'' (Peter Lang, 2017).</ref> Predominant factors and trends included the continued mass mobilization of [[capital market]]s through [[neoliberalism]], the thawing and sudden end of the [[Cold War]] after four decades of fear, the beginning of the widespread proliferation of [[new media]] such as the Internet and email, and increasing skepticism towards government. The [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991 led to a realignment and reconsolidation of economic and political power across the world and within countries. The [[dot-com bubble]] of 1997–2000 brought wealth to some entrepreneurs before its crash between 2000 and 2001.<ref>Joseph E. Stiglitz, ''The roaring nineties: A new history of the world's most prosperous decade'' (Norton, 2004).</ref><ref>Milton Berman, ''The Nineties in America'' (2009).</ref><ref>Robert Robert, and Jacob Weisberg. ''In an uncertain world: tough choices from Wall Street to Washington'' (2015).</ref>

New [[ethnic conflict]]s started in Africa and the [[Balkans]], causing the [[Rwandan genocide|Rwandan]] and [[Bosnian genocide]]s. Signs of any resolution of tensions between Israel and the [[Arab world]] remained elusive despite the progress of the [[Oslo Accords]]. On a peaceful note, after 30 years of violence, [[the Troubles]] in Northern Ireland came to a standstill with the signing of the [[Good Friday Agreement]] in 1998.

====Collapse of communist parties====
{{Further|Revolutions of 1989}}

[[Communist party]] support collapsed rapidly in most of the world (outside East Asia). Adherents were shocked at the failure of Gorbachev to reform and reestablish [[communism]] in Russia, and the quick overthrow in Eastern Europe in 1989. The Kremlin ended financial aid and leadership roles.<ref>Brown, 2009; pp 481–618.</ref><ref>Service, 2007; pp 415–482.</ref><ref>Priestland, 2009; pp 542–575.</ref> For example, financial aid to multiple countries in Latin America was ended in budget cutbacks.<ref>Sharyl Cross, "Gorbachev's policy in Latin America: origins, impact, and the future." ''Communist and Post-Communist Studies'' 26.3 (1993): 315–334.</ref>

====Rise of neoliberalism====
{{Main|Neoliberalism}}

Neoliberalism became a main trend in many developed countries. It meant heavy reliance on market capitalism, and global flows of investment, together with deregulation and cutbacks in welfare spending. Economist [[Milton Friedman]], leader of the [[Chicago school of economics]], was a prominent exponent.<ref>Daniel Steadman Jones, ''Masters of the Universe: Hayek, Friedman, and the Birth of Neoliberal Politics'' (Princeton UP, 2012).</ref> In the 1980s, [[Presidency of Ronald Reagan|Ronald Reagan]] and [[Premiership of Margaret Thatcher|Margaret Thatcher]] had led the way in the United States and the United Kingdom.<ref>Nicholas Wapshott, ''[Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher: a political marriage'' (Penguin, 2007).</ref>

===2000s===
{{Main|2000s|}}

====Worldwide economic downturn====
{{Main|Great Recession}}

The early part of the decade saw the long-time predicted breakthrough of [[Economy of China|economic giant China]], which had double-digit growth during nearly the whole decade. To a lesser extent, India also benefited from an economic boom, which saw the two most populous countries becoming an increasingly dominant economic force. The rapid catching-up of emerging economies with developed countries sparked some protectionist tensions during the period and was partly responsible for an increase in energy and [[food prices]] at the end of the decade. The economic developments in the latter third of the decade were dominated by a worldwide economic downturn, which started with the [[Subprime mortgage crisis|crisis in housing and credit]] in the United States in late 2007 and led to the bankruptcy of major banks and other financial institutions. The [[2007–2008 financial crisis]] led to the [[Great Recession]], beginning in the United States and affecting most of the industrialized world.

====Internet====
The growth of the Internet contributed to [[globalization]] during the decade, which allowed faster communication among people around the world. [[Social networking service|Social networking sites]] arose as a new way for people to stay in touch no matter where they were, as long as they had an [[Internet access|internet connection]]. The first social networking sites were [[Friendster]], [[Myspace]], Facebook, and Twitter, established from 2002 to 2006. Myspace was the most popular social networking website until June 2009, when Facebook overtook it. E-mail continued to be popular throughout the decade and began to replace paper-based "[[snail mail]]" as the primary way of sending letters and other messages to people in distant locations.<ref>Leiner, Barry M., et al. "A brief history of the Internet." ''ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review'' 39.5 (2009): 22–31. https://arxiv.org/html/cs/9901011?[ online]</ref><ref>Yair Amichai‐Hamburger, and Tsahi Hayat, "Social networking." ''The international encyclopedia of media effects'' (2017): 1–12.</ref>

====War on terror====
The [[war on terror]] and [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|War in Afghanistan]] began after the [[September 11 attacks]] in 2001. The [[International Criminal Court]] was formed in 2002. In 2003, a United States-led coalition invaded Iraq, and the [[Iraq War]] led to the end of [[Saddam Hussein]]'s rule as Iraqi President and the [[Ba'ath Party]] in Iraq. [[Al-Qaeda]] and affiliated [[Islamism|Islamist]] militant groups performed terrorist acts throughout the decade. The [[Second Congo War]], the deadliest conflict since World War II, ended in July 2003. Further wars that ended included the [[Algerian Civil War]], the [[Angolan Civil War]], the [[Sierra Leone Civil War]], the [[Second Liberian Civil War]], the [[Nepalese Civil War]], and the [[Sri Lankan Civil War]]. Wars that began included the [[conflict in the Niger Delta]], the [[Houthi insurgency in Yemen]], and the [[Mexican Drug War]].<ref>Chharles Webel, and Mark Tomass, eds. ''Assessing the War on Terror: Western and Middle Eastern Perspectives'' (Taylor & Francis, 2017).</ref><ref>Tom Lansford, ''9/11 and the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. A Chronology and Reference Guide'' (ABC-CLIO, 2011).</ref>

====Climate change====
Climate change and global warming became common concerns in the 2000s. Prediction tools made significant progress during the decade.  Since the 1990s, research into historical and modern climate change has expanded rapidly.  Measurement networks such as the [[Global Ocean Observing System]], [[Integrated Carbon Observation System]], and NASA's [[Earth Observing System]] now enable monitoring of the causes and effects of ongoing change.  Research has also broadened, linking many fields such as Earth sciences, behavioral sciences, economics, and [[Climate security|security]].  UN-sponsored organizations such as the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|IPCC]] gained influence, and studies such as the [[Stern Review|Stern report]] influenced public support for paying the political and economic costs of countering climate change. The global temperature kept climbing during the decade. In December 2009, the [[World Meteorological Organization]] (WMO) announced that the 2000s may have been the warmest decade since records began in 1850, with four of the five warmest years since 1850 having occurred in this decade. The WMO's findings were later echoed by the [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA]] and the [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]].<ref>Andrew E. Dessler, and Edward A. Parson, eds. ''The science and politics of global climate change: A guide to the debate'' (Cambridge University Press, 2019).</ref>

===2010s===
{{Main|2010s|2010s in political history}}

The decade began with an economic recovery from the [[Great Recession]]. Global economic recovery accelerated during the latter half of the decade, fueled by robust consumer spending, increased investment in infrastructure, and the emergence of new technologies. However, the recovery developed unevenly. Socioeconomic crises caused by austerity, inflation, and an increase in commodity  prices, led to unrest in many countries, including the [[Anti-austerity movement in Spain|15-M]] and [[Occupy movement]]s. Unrest in some countries in the [[Arab world]] evolved into revolutions in [[Tunisian Revolution|Tunisia]], [[2011 Egyptian revolution|Egypt]], and [[Bahraini uprising (2011–present)|Bahrain]] as well as civil wars in [[2011 Libyan Civil War|Libya]], [[Syrian Civil War|Syria]], and [[Yemeni Civil War (2015–present)|Yemen]] in a regional phenomenon that was commonly referred to as the [[Arab Spring]]. Meanwhile Europe had to grapple with a [[European debt crisis|debt crises]] that was pronounced early in the decade. Shifting social norms saw a growth of [[LGBT rights by country or territory|LGBT rights]] and [[Women in government|female representation]].<ref>Jason Strong, ''The 2010s: Looking Back at a Dramatic decade'' (2019) [https://www.amazon.com/2010s-Looking-Back-Dramatic-decade/dp/1999222725/ online]</ref>

The United States continued to retain its superpower status while China sought to expand its [[South China Sea#Territorial claims|influence]] in the [[South China Sea]] and in [[Africa–China relations|Africa]] through its [[Belt and Road Initiative|economic initiatives]] and [[2015 People's Republic of China military reform|military reforms]]. It solidified its position as an [[Potential superpowers#China|emerging superpower]] despite conflicts caused by its territorial claims and internal security policies in [[2019 Hong Kong extradition bill|Hong Kong]], [[Xinjiang internment camps|Xinjiang]], and [[Self-immolation protests by Tibetans in China|Tibet]]. These developments led the United States to implement a [[China containment policy|containment]] policy and initiate a [[China–United States trade war|trade war]] against China. Elsewhere in Asia, the two Koreas [[2018–19 Korean peace process|improved their relations]] after a [[2017–18 North Korea crisis|prolonged crisis between the two countries]]. The [[War on Terror]] continued as a part of the U.S.'s continued [[Foreign interventions by the United States|military involvement]] in many parts of the world. U.S. forces [[Death of Osama bin Laden|killed Osama bin Laden]] and The rise of the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]] extremist organization in 2014 [[Territory of the Islamic State|erased]] the Syria-Iraq border, resulting in a [[International military intervention against ISIL|multinational intervention against it]]. In Africa, South Sudan [[2011 South Sudanese independence referendum|broke away]] from Sudan, and [[2018–19 Arab protests|mass protests]] and various coups d'état saw longtime strongmen deposed. In the U.S., celebrity businessman [[Donald Trump]] was elected president amid an international wave of [[populism]] and [[neo-nationalism]]. The European Union experienced a [[European migrant crisis|migrant crisis]] in the middle of the decade and withdrawal of the United Kingdom as a member state following the historic [[2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum|United Kingdom EU membership referendum]]. Russia attempted to assert itself in international affairs, [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|annexing Crimea]] in 2014.

Information technology progressed, with smartphones becoming widespread. The [[Internet of things]] saw substantial growth during the 2010s due to advancements in wireless networking devices, mobile telephony, and [[cloud computing]]. Advancements in [[data processing]] and the rollout of [[4G]] broadband allowed [[Big data|data]] and information to disperse among domains at paces never before seen while online resources such as social media facilitated phenomena such as the [[Me Too movement]] and the rise of [[slacktivism]], [[Woke]] culture and online [[call-out culture]]. Online nonprofit organisation [[WikiLeaks]] gained international attention for publishing classified information on topics including [[Guantanamo Bay files leak|Guantánamo Bay]], [[Syria Files|Syria]], the [[Afghan War documents leak|Afghan]] and [[Iraq War documents leak|Iraq]] wars, and [[United States diplomatic cables leak|United States diplomacy]]. [[Edward Snowden]] blew the whistle on [[Global surveillance disclosures (2013–present)|global surveillance]], raising awareness on the role governments and private entities have in [[mass surveillance]] and [[information privacy]].

===2020s===
{{Further|2020s in economic history|2020s in environmental history|2020s in military history}}

====COVID====
{{Main|2020s|COVID-19 pandemic|Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on international relations}}

Before COVID hit in 2020, economic conditions were faltering. The UN reported:
:[[Gross world product|World gross product growth]] slipped to 2.3 per cent in 2019—the lowest rate since the [[2007–2008 financial crisis]]. This slowdown is occurring alongside growing discontent with the social and environmental quality of economic growth, amid pervasive inequalities and the deepening climate crisis.<ref>UN, "World Economic Situation and Prospects: 2020'' (2020) page viii.</ref>

In 2020 the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] quickly spread to [[COVID-19 pandemic by country and territory|over 200 countries and territories in the world]]. This pandemic has caused [[Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic|severe global economic disruption]], including the [[COVID-19 recession|largest global recession]] since the [[Great Depression]]. It led to postponement or cancellation of sporting, religious, political and cultural events, [[shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic|widespread supply shortages]], leading to [[panic buying]], and [[Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment|decreased emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases]]. Many countries have [[COVID-19 lockdowns|mandatory lockdowns]] on public movement, and there have been [[COVID-19 pandemic cases|more than 600 million cases]], resulting in [[COVID-19 pandemic deaths|more than 6 million deaths]].<ref>{{Cite web| title=These are the 10 most-affected countries with the highest number of COVID-19 cases|url=https://www.businessinsider.in/politics/india/news/check-out-the-10-most-affected-countries-with-the-highest-number-of-coronavirus-cases/slidelist/76275918.cms|access-date=April 19, 2021|website=Business Insider}}</ref>

====United States====
{{Main|Foreign policy of the Donald Trump administration|Foreign policy of the Joe Biden administration|Antony Blinken#Foreign policy positions}}

During the [[First presidency of Donald Trump|presidency of Donald Trump]], U.S. foreign policy was noted for its unpredictability and reneging on prior international commitments,<ref name="Bennhold" /><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/iran/2020-01-22/cost-incoherent-foreign-policy |title=The Cost of an Incoherent Foreign Policy: Trump's Iran Imbroglio Undermines U.S. Priorities Everywhere Else |first=Brett |last=McGurk |author-link=Brett McGurk |work=[[Foreign Affairs]] |date=January 22, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2019-08-20/trump-s-true-foreign-policy-chaos |title=Trump's True Foreign Policy: Chaos |first=Hal |last=Brands |author-link=Hal Brands |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |date=August 20, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |first=Richard |last=Haass |author-link=Richard Haass |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/2020-08-11/present-disruption |title=Present at the Disruption: How Trump Unmade U.S. Foreign Policy |magazine=[[Foreign Affairs]] |date=September–October 2020}}</ref> upending diplomatic conventions, embracing political and economic [[brinkmanship]] with most adversaries, and straining relations with traditional allies. Trump's "[[America First (policy)|America First]]" policy pursued [[American nationalism#Donald Trump presidency|nationalist]] foreign policy objectives and prioritized bilateral relations over multinational agreements.<ref>{{cite news |first=Ana |last=Swanson |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/12/business/economy/trump-european-union-trade.html |title=Trump Administration Escalates Tensions With Europe as Crisis Looms |date=March 12, 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Christiane |last=Amanpour |author-link=Christiane Amanpour |title=Donald Trump's speech: 'America first', but an America absent from the world |date=July 22, 2016 |website=[[CNN]] |url=https://www.cnn.com/2016/07/22/opinions/donald-trump-speech-amanpour/}}</ref><ref name=Bennhold>{{cite news |first=Katrin |last=Bennhold |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/06/world/europe/germany-troop-withdrawal-america.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |title=Has 'America First' Become 'Trump First'? Germans Wonder |date=June 6, 2020}}</ref> As president, Trump described himself as a nationalist<ref>{{cite news |first=William |last=Cummings |title='I am a nationalist': Trump's embrace of controversial label sparks uproar |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2018/10/24/trump-says-hes-nationalist-what-means-why-its-controversial/1748521002/ |work=[[USA Today]] |date=October 24, 2018}}</ref> while espousing [[Isolationism|isolationist]], [[Non-interventionism|non-interventionist]], and [[Protectionism|protectionist]] views;<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rucker |first1=Philip |author1-link=Philip Rucker |last2=Costa |first2=Robert |author2-link=Robert Costa (journalist) |date=March 21, 2016 |title=Trump questions need for NATO, outlines noninterventionist foreign policy |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2016/03/21/donald-trump-reveals-foreign-policy-team-in-meeting-with-the-washington-post/}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Kagan |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Kagan |date=September 23, 2018 |title='America First' Has Won |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/23/opinion/trump-foreign-policy-america-first.html |access-date=October 7, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2020/10/26/trump-international-relations-danger-isolation-policies-column/3726323001/|title=Trump's dangerous isolationism weakens USA and strengthens our adversaries: Retired generals|first1=Michael R.|last1=Lehnert|first2=Richard L.|last2=Kelly|newspaper=USA Today|date=October 26, 2020|access-date=December 6, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/2020/06/17/opinion/trump-administrations-policy-isolationism-damages-spirit-prosperity-america/|title=Trump administration's policy of isolationism damages spirit, prosperity of America|first=Roger|last=Lowenstein|newspaper=Boston Globe|date=June 17, 2020|access-date=December 6, 2020}}</ref> he personally praised some [[Populism|populist]], [[Neo-nationalism|neo-nationalist]], [[Illiberal democracy|illiberal]], and authoritarian governments, while antagonizing others, as administration diplomats nominally continued to pursue pro-democracy ideals abroad.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/2018/10/01/can-u.s.-democracy-policy-survive-trump-pub-77381 |title=Can U.S. Democracy Policy Survive Trump? |last1=Carothers |first1=Thomas |last2=Brown |first2=Frances Z. |date=October 1, 2019 |website=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]] |access-date=October 19, 2019}}</ref>

The [[presidency of Joe Biden]] emphasizes repairing US alliances, which had been damaged under the Trump administration,<ref name=MadhaniAmericaBack>Aamer Madhani, [https://apnews.com/article/biden-foreign-policy-g7-summit-munich-cc10859afd0f542fd268c0a7ddcd9bb6 Biden declares 'America is back' in welcome words to allies], Associated Press (February 19, 2021).</ref><ref>Phil Stewart, Idrees Ali & Robin Emmott, [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-biden-nato-idUSKBN2AF1MX In NATO debut, Biden's Pentagon aims to rebuild trust damaged by Trump], Reuters (February 15, 2021).</ref> and returning the U.S. to a "position of trusted leadership" among world [[Democracy|democracies]] to counter challenges from Russia and China.<ref name=MadhaniAmericaBack/><ref>Paul Sonne, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2020/12/09/biden-foreign-policy-russia-china/ To counter China and Russia, Biden has said he will strengthen alliances], ''Washington Post'' (December 9, 2020).</ref><ref name=BrookingsFebruary2021>[https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2021/02/05/around-the-halls-brookings-experts-analyze-president-bidens-first-foreign-policy-speech/ Around the halls: Brookings experts analyze President Biden's first foreign policy speech], Brookings Institution (February 5, 2021).</ref><ref name=AmericaBack>David E. Sanger, Steven Erlanger and Roger Cohen, [https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/19/us/politics/biden-munich-conference.html Biden Tells Allies 'America Is Back,' but Macron and Merkel Push Back], ''New York Times'' (February 19, 2021).</ref> As president, Biden has sought to strengthen the [[Transatlantic relations|transatlantic alliance]] between the U.S. and Europe,<ref name=MadhaniAmericaBack/><ref name=BrookingsFebruary2021/> and he recommitted the U.S. to the [[NATO]] alliance and [[collective security]].<ref>[https://www.cnbc.com/2021/02/19/munich-security-conference-biden-backs-nato-in-sharp-contrast-to-trump.html 'An attack on one is an attack on all' — Biden backs NATO military alliance in sharp contrast to Trump], CNBC (February 19, 2021).</ref> Biden returned the U.S. to the [[Paris Agreement|Paris Climate Agreement]]<ref name=AmericaBack/> and has taken other steps to combat [[climate change]].<ref>Somini Sengupta, [https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/27/climate/climate-change-biden-kerry.html How Biden's Climate Ambitions Could Shift America's Global Footprint], ''New York Times'' (February 2, 2021).</ref> His administration emphasizes international cooperation to combat the [[COVID-19 pandemic]],<ref name=MadhaniAmericaBack/><ref>Aamer Madhani, [https://apnews.com/article/joe-biden-donald-trump-public-health-coronavirus-pandemic-china-92e6d6bcbaabec957d5a5e8f346f54da Biden rolling out plan for $4 billion global vaccine effort], Associated Press (February 19, 2021).</ref> as well as U.S. defenses against foreign-sponsored [[cyberattack]]s and [[Cyber spying|cyberespionage]].<ref>Tonya Riley, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2021/02/18/cybersecurity-202-investigations-into-russian-north-korean-hackers-are-shaping-biden-foreign-policy-anne-neuberger-cybersecurity-biden-administration-cybersecurity/ The Cybersecurity 202: Investigations into Russian, North Korean hackers are shaping Biden's foreign policy], ''Washington Post'' (February 18, 2021).</ref><ref>Christopher Bing & Joseph Menn, [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-biden-cyber-idUSKBN29R18I After big hack of U.S. government, Biden enlists 'world class' cybersecurity team], Reuters (January 22, 2021).</ref>

====AUKUS====
{{Main|AUKUS}}

[[AUKUS]] is a new trilateral security pact between Australia, the UK, and the US, announced on September 15, 2021. It will initially focus on a fleet of [[Nuclear submarine|nuclear-powered submarines]] for the [[Royal Australian Navy]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=September 15, 2021|title=UK, US and Australia launch landmark security pact|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-58564837|access-date=September 15, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=September 15, 2021|title=Australia to get nuclear-powered submarines, scrap $90b plan to build French-designed subs|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-09-15/allied-naval-united-states-biden-australia-nuclear-submarines/100465628|access-date=September 15, 2021|website=www.abc.net.au|language=en-AU}}</ref> It is designed to counter China's influence in the Indo-Pacific region.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=September 16, 2021|title=Pact with U.S., Britain, will see Australia scrap French sub deal-media|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/us/biden-announce-alliance-with-britain-australia-tech-cyber-defense-politico-2021-09-15/|access-date=September 16, 2021|website=Reuters|language=en}}</ref> AUKUS will enable the three countries to share information in areas including artificial intelligence, cyber, underwater systems and long-range strike capabilities. As part of the pact, the United States and Britain would share their knowledge of how to maintain nuclear defence infrastructure.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Biden announces joint deal with U.K. and Australia to counter China|url=https://www.politico.com/news/2021/09/15/biden-deal-uk-australia-defense-tech-sharing-511877|access-date=September 15, 2021|website=POLITICO|date=September 15, 2021 |language=en}}</ref> The agreement is a successor to the existing [[ANZUS]] pact between Australia, New Zealand, and the United States, but with New Zealand "sidelined" due to its [[New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act 1987|ban on nuclear technology]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=New Australia, United Kingdom, United States defence pact 'sidelines New Zealand', focus on nuclear capabilities|language=en|work=Newshub|url=https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/world/2021/09/new-australia-united-kingdom-united-states-defence-pact-sidelines-new-zealand-focus-on-nuclear-capabilities.html|access-date=September 15, 2021}}</ref>

==Politics, wars and states==
{{Main|List of wars: 2003–present}}

[[File:Victory Day Parade 2005-26.jpg|thumb|Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] with [[George W. Bush]] and other Western leaders in Moscow, May 9, 2005]]
[[File:Genova-G8 2001-Incidenti a Corso Torino.jpg|thumbnail|Protesters try to stop members of the [[G8]] from attending the summit during the [[27th G8 summit]] in [[Genoa]], Italy by burning vehicles on the main route to the summit.]]

===New countries and territorial changes===
Some territories have gained independence during the 21st century. This is a list of sovereign states that have gained independence in the 21st century and have been recognized by the UN.[[File:Kosova independence Vienna 17-02-2008 b.jpg|thumb|Celebration of the [[2008 Kosovo declaration of independence|Declaration of Independence]] of Kosovo]]

* {{Flagu|East Timor}} '''East Timor''' (Timor-Leste)<ref>Grolier- the new book of knowledge, section "E"</ref> on May 20, 2002.
* {{Flagu|Montenegro}} '''Montenegro''' on June 3, 2006.
* {{Flagu|Serbia}} '''Serbia''' on June 3, 2006.
* {{Flagu|South Sudan}} '''South Sudan''' on July 9, 2011.

These nations gained sovereignty through government reform.

*{{Flagu|Comoros}} '''Union of the Comoros''' on December 23, 2001, replaced the [[Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros]]
*{{Flagu|Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan}} '''[[Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan]]''' on July 13, 2002, replaced the [[Islamic State of Afghanistan]]
* {{Flagu|Serbia and Montenegro}} '''[[Serbia and Montenegro|State Union of Serbia and Montenegro]]''' on February 4, 2003, replaced the [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]
*{{Flagu|Afghanistan|2004}} '''[[Islamic Republic of Afghanistan]]''' on December 7, 2004, replaced the [[Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan]]
* {{Flagu|Nepal}} '''Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal''' on May 28, 2008, replaced the [[Kingdom of Nepal]]
* {{Flagu|Libya}} '''[[National Transitional Council]] of Libya''' on October 20, 2011, replaced the [[History of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi|Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya]].
* {{Flagu|Libya}} '''[[State of Libya]]''' on August 8, 2012, replaced the [[National Transitional Council]] of Libya.
* {{Flagu|Afghanistan}} '''[[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan]]''' on August 15, 2021, replaced the [[Islamic Republic of Afghanistan]].

These territories have declared independence and secured relative autonomy but they have only been recognized by some UN member states:
* {{Flag|Kosovo}} on February 17, 2008. ([[International recognition of Kosovo|partially recognized]])
* {{Flag|Donetsk People's Republic}} and {{Flag|Luhansk People's Republic}} in May 2014. Founded by separatists from Ukraine in the [[War in Donbas (2014–2022)|war in Donbas]]. The states briefly confederated as {{Flagu|Novorossiya}} '''[[Novorossiya (confederation)|Novorossiya]]''', which was dissolved in 2015. ([[International recognition of the Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic|partially recognized]])

These territories have declared independence and secured relative autonomy but they have been recognized by no one:
* {{Flagu|ISIS}} '''[[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]]''' in June 2014. Had [[ISIL territorial claims|taken over much of Iraq, Syria and Libya]]. It [[List of designated terrorist groups|is considered]] a terrorist organization.
* {{Flagu|Catalonia}} '''[[Catalonia|Republic of Catalonia]]''' on October 27, 2017. The [[Parliament of Catalonia|Catalan Parliament]] proclaimed the Catalan Republic, but the Kingdom of Spain did not recognise this and for a time imposed direct rule. (See [[2017 Catalan independence referendum]] and [[2017–2018 Spanish constitutional crisis]])
* {{Flagu|South Yemen}} '''[[Southern Transitional Council]]''' in March 2017. Claimed the majority of the southern part of Yemen and the restoration of [[South Yemen]].

These territories were annexed from a sovereign country, the action has only been recognized by some UN member states:
* {{Flagu|Crimea}} '''[[Republic of Crimea (Russia)|Crimea]]''' [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|annexed]] from Ukraine into the Russian Federation on March 18, 2014.

These territories were ceded to another country:

* {{Flagu|Bangladesh}} {{Flagu|India}} '''[[India–Bangladesh enclaves]]''', traded between the two countries in 2015.
* {{Flagu|Artsakh}} '''[[Armenian-occupied territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh]]''' and the '''[[Lachin corridor]]''', surrendered by Armenia to Azerbaijan at the end of the [[2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war]].

==Major issues==

===Economics and trade===
====Taxation====
Finance officials from 130 countries agreed on July 1, 2021, to plans for a new [[global minimum corporate tax rate]]. All the major economies agreed to pass national laws that would require corporations to pay at least 15% income tax in the countries they operate. This new policy would end the practice of locating world headquarters in small countries with very low taxation rates. Governments hope to recoup some of the lost revenue, estimated at $100&nbsp;billion to $240&nbsp;billion each year. The new system was promoted by the United States and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development ([[OECD]]). Secretary-General [[Mathias Cormann]] of the OECD said, "This historic package will ensure that large multinational companies pay their fair share of tax everywhere."<ref>Paul Hannon and Kate Davidson, "U.S. Wins International Backing for Global Minimum Tax." [https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-wins-international-backing-for-global-minimum-tax-11625153698?mod=hp_lead_pos1 ''Wall Street Journal'' July 1, 2021]</ref> On July 10 the finance ministers of the G-20 all approved the plan.<ref>Melissa Heikkila, "G20 finance ministers sign off on global tax deal: The reform aims to stop multinationals from shifting their profits into tax havens" ''POLITICO'' July 10, 2021 [https://www.politico.eu/article/g20-finance-ministers-sign-off-on-global-tax-deal/ online].</ref>

====Technology====
{{Main|Information technology}}

====Rise of China====
{{Main|Chinese Century}}
{{See also|Economy of China}}{{See also|Xi Jinping Thought|Xi Jinping Administration}}[[File:Prc1952-2005gdp.gif|thumb|250px|China's nominal GDP trend from 1952 to 2015]]
[[File:Graph of Major Developing Economies by Real GDP per capita at PPP 1990-2013.png|thumb|325px|China and other major developing economies by [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP per capita at purchasing-power parity]], 1990–2013. The rapid economic growth of China (blue) is readily apparent.<ref>{{cite web|title=World Bank World Development Indicators|url=http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators|website=World Bank|access-date=December 8, 2014}}</ref>]]

China's economy saw continuous real annual GDP growth 5% to 10% since 1991, by far the highest rate in the world. Starting poor, it became rich as a nation with dwindling pockets of poverty in remote rural areas. A very heavy migration of hundreds of millions of people moved from villages to cities to provide the labor force. In early 1992, [[Paramount leader of China|Chinese leader]] [[Deng Xiaoping]] made a series of [[Deng Xiaoping Theory|political pronouncements]] designed to give new impetus to and reinvigorate the process of economic reform. The National Communist Party Congress backed up Deng's renewed push for market reforms, stating that the key task in the 1990s was to create a "[[socialist market economy]]". Continuity in the political system but bolder reform in the economic system were announced as the hallmarks of the 10-year development plan. Deng's government spent heavily to improve the infrastructure of highways, subways, railways, airports, bridges, dams, aqueducts and other public works. China became the world's largest manufacturer and exporter. Major problems worsened such as pollution and income inequality. By 2020, the [[Chinese Communist Party]] of [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|general secretary]] [[Xi Jinping]] was shifting from manufacturing to consumer services and high technology. Planners hoped the resulting growth, though less rapid, would be more sustainable.<ref>For a brief overview see Yanrui Wu, [https://www.amazon.com/Chinas-Economic-Growth-Miracle-Characteristics/dp/1138362026/ ''China's Economic Growth: A Miracle with Chinese Characteristics''] (Routledge, 2018).</ref><ref>Elizabeth C. Economy, "China's New Revolution: The Reign of Xi Jinping." ''Foreign Affairs'' 97 (2018): 60+. [http://cs.brown.edu/courses/csci1800/sources/2018_MayJune_ForeignAffairs_ChinasNewRevolution.pdf online]</ref>

[[File:One-belt-one-road.svg|thumb|left|300px|Transportation routes in the Belt and Road Initiative]]
The [[Belt and Road Initiative]] is China's dramatic plan for helping and directing economic development in 70 poor nations of Asia and Africa. It launched in 2013 and focused on massive construction projects involving ocean ports, office buildings, railroads, highways, airports, dams, and tunnels.<ref>Peter Cai, ''Understanding China's belt and road initiative'' (Lowy Institute 2017) [https://think-asia.org/bitstream/handle/11540/6810/Understanding_Chinas_Belt_and_Road_Initiative_WEB_1.pdf?sequence=1 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818033131/https://think-asia.org/bitstream/handle/11540/6810/Understanding_Chinas_Belt_and_Road_Initiative_WEB_1.pdf?sequence=1 |date=August 18, 2021 }}.</ref><ref>For the historiography see Jean-Marc F. Blanchard, "Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) blues: Powering BRI research back on track to avoid choppy seas." ''Journal of Chinese Political Science'' (2021): 1–21; [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11366-020-09717-0 online]</ref>

====German recovery====
{{Main|Economic history of Germany}}

The unification of rich West Germany with poor East Germany in the 1990s was an expensive proposition. The German economic miracle petered out in the 1990s, so that by the end of the century and the early 2000s it was ridiculed as "[[Sick man of Europe|the sick man of Europe]]."{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}} It suffered a short recession in 2003. The economic growth rate was a very low 1.2% annually from 1988 to 2005. Unemployment, especially in the former East, remained high despite heavy stimulus spending. It rose from 9.2% in 1998 to 11.1% in 2009. Germany was the [[List of countries by exports|world's largest net exporter]] of goods from 2002 to 2008. The worldwide [[Great Recession]] of 2008–2010 worsened conditions briefly, as there was a sharp decline in GDP. However, unemployment did not rise, and recovery was faster than almost anywhere else. Prosperity was pulled along by exports that reached a record of US$1.7&nbsp;trillion in 2011, or half of the German GDP, or nearly 8% of all of the exports in the world. While the rest of the European Community struggled with financial issues, Germany took a conservative position based on an extraordinarily strong economy after 2010. The labor market proved flexible, and the export industries were attuned to world demand.<ref>Christian Dustmann, et al. "From sick man of Europe to economic superstar: Germany's resurgent economy." ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'' 28.1 (2014): 167–88. [https://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1257/jep.28.1.167 online]</ref><ref>Florian Spohr, "Germany's Labour Market Policies: How the Sick Man of Europe Performed a Second Economic Miracle." in ''Great Policy Successes'' (Oxford UP, 2019) pp. 283–303 [https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/23594/9780198843719.pdf?sequence=1#page=298 online].</ref>

===Human rights===
{{Main|Human rights|History of human rights}}

There is a large recent literature on human rights covering a wide variety of topics.<ref>Jacques Fomerand, ed. ''Historical Dictionary of Human Rights'' (2021) [https://www.amazon.com/Historical-Dictionary-Dictionaries-Religions-Philosophies/dp/1538123053/ excerpt]</ref><ref>Robert F. Gorman, and Edward S. Mihalkanin, eds. ''Historical Dictionary of Human Rights and Humanitarian Organizations'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Historical-Humanitarian-Organizations-Dictionaries-International/dp/0810855488/ excerpt]</ref><ref>Micheline Ishay, ''The History of Human Rights: From Ancient Times to the Era of Globalization'' (U of California Press, 2008) [https://www.amazon.com/History-Human-Rights-Ancient-Globalization/dp/0520256417/ excerpt]</ref><ref>Micheline Ishay, ed. ''The Human Rights Reader: Major Political Essays, Speeches, and Documents from Ancient Times to the Present'' (2nd ed. 2007) [https://www.amazon.com/Human-Rights-Reader-Political-Documents/dp/0415951607/ excerpt]</ref>

====Race, poverty, and inequality====
{{Further|Capital in the Twenty-First Century}}

French economist [[Thomas Piketty]] gained international attention in 2013 for his book on ''[[Capital in the Twenty-First Century]]''. He focuses on [[Economic inequality|wealth and income inequality]] in Europe and the US today and since the 18th century. The book's central thesis is that inequality is not an accident but rather a feature of capitalism that can be reversed only through state intervention.<ref name="cooper">{{cite news |first=Ryan |last=Cooper |title=Why everyone is talking about Thomas Piketty's Capital in the Twenty-First Century |url=http://theweek.com/article/index/258666/why-everyone-is-talking-about-thomas-pikettys-capital-in-the-twenty-first-century |newspaper=[[The Week]] |date=March 25, 2014 }}</ref> The book thus argues that unless capitalism is reformed, the very democratic order will be threatened.<ref name="cooper"/> The book reached number one on ''[[The New York Times]]'' bestselling hardcover nonfiction list from May 18, 2014.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/best-sellers-books/2014-05-18/hardcover-nonfiction/list.html | title=Best Sellers | access-date=May 22, 2014 | work=The New York Times | first=Gregory | last=Cowles}}</ref> Piketty offered a "possible remedy: a global tax on wealth".<ref name="The_Economist_2015">{{citation |url=https://www.economist.com/news/books-and-arts/21653596-anthony-atkinson-godfather-inequality-research-growing-problem-mind-gap?fsrc=scn/tw/te/pe/st/mindthegap |title=Mind the Gap: Anthony Atkinson, the godfather of inequality research, on a growing problem|date=June 6, 2015 |access-date=June 7, 2015 |newspaper=[[The Economist]]}}</ref>

[[File:Total CO2 by Region.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Since 2000, rising {{CO2}} emissions in China and the rest of world have surpassed the output of the United States and Europe.<ref name="Friedlingstein 2019">{{harvnb|Friedlingstein|Jones|O'Sullivan|Andrew|2019}}, Table 7.</ref>]]
[[File:Per Capita CO2 by Region.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Per person, the United States generates {{CO2}} at a far faster rate than other primary regions.<ref name="Friedlingstein 2019"/>]]

===Global warming and environment===
{{Main|Climate change|Politics of climate change}}

The [[politics of climate change]] results from different perspectives on how to respond to the threat of global warming. Global warming is driven largely by the [[Greenhouse gas emissions|emissions of greenhouse gases]] due to human economic activity, especially the burning of [[fossil fuels]], certain industries like cement and steel production, and [[Land-use change|land use for agriculture and forestry]]. Since the [[Industrial Revolution]], fossil fuels have provided the main source of energy for economic and technological development. [[Emission intensity|Carbon-intensive]] industries and people and entities associated with these industries have resisted change to this economic system, despite [[Scientific consensus on climate change|widespread scientific consensus]] for the need to mitigate the causes and effects. Despite resistance, efforts to [[Climate change mitigation|mitigate climate change]] have been prominent on the international political agenda since the 1990s and are also increasingly addressed at national and local level.<ref>Andrew E. Dessler and Edward A. Parson, eds. ''The Science and Politics of Global Climate Change: A Guide to the Debate'' (3rd ed. 2019) [https://www.amazon.com/Science-Politics-Global-Climate-Change/dp/131663132X/ excerpt]</ref><ref>For updates see "Our coverage of climate change" [https://www.economist.com/climate-change ''The Economist''] (2021).</ref>

The 1997 [[Kyoto Protocol]] included commitments for most developed countries to limit their emissions. During negotiations, the G77 (representing developing countries) pushed for a mandate requiring developed countries to "[take] the lead" in reducing their emissions, since developed countries contributed most to the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, and since per-capita emissions were still relatively low in developing countries and emissions of developing countries would grow to meet their development needs.<ref>David Shorr, "From Kyoto to Paris" ''Journal of Diplomacy & International Relations'' (2014) 16#1 pp 23–31.</ref>

In 2019 the five largest sources of global emissions were China (27%), the United States (11%), India (6.6%), and the European Union (6.4%).<ref>Steven Mufson and Brady Dennis, Chinese greenhouse gas emissions now larger than those of developed countries combined" [https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2021/05/06/china-greenhouse-emissions/ ''The Washington Post'' May 6, 2021].</ref> In April 2021, President Biden presided at a global conference of 40 national leaders who all made commitments on reducing global warming. The U.S. announced that by 2030 it planned to cut its 2005 emission levels in half. CCP general secretary [[Xi Jinping]] announced China would limit its coal-based emissions and pledged net-zero emissions by 2060.<ref>"Emissions impossible: Joe Biden asserts America's role in the fight against climate change; His virtual summit went smoothly, but the real work is still ahead," [https://www.economist.com/united-states/2021/04/24/joe-biden-asserts-americas-role-in-the-fight-against-climate-change ''The Economist''] April 24, 2021]</ref>

===International rivalry===

====U.S. versus China====
{{Main|China–United States relations|China–United States trade war|Second Cold War}}

According to German scholar Peter Rudolph in 2020, the Sino-American conflict syndrome involves six elements:<ref>Peter Rudolph, "The Sino-American World Conflict" (German Institute for International and Security Affairs, 2020). [https://www.swp-berlin.org/10.18449/2020RP03/ online]</ref>{{blockquote| 
* It is based on a regional status competition, which is increasingly becoming global.
* This competition for influence has become combined with an ideological antagonism that has recently become more focused on the US side.
* Since the United States and China perceive each other as potential military adversaries and plan their operations accordingly, the [[security dilemma]] also shapes their relationship.
* The strategic rivalry is particularly pronounced on China's maritime periphery, dominated by military threat perceptions and the US expectation that China intends to establish an exclusive sphere of influence in East Asia.
* Global competition for influence is closely interwoven with the technological dimension of American-Chinese rivalry. It is about dominance in the digital age.
* The risk for international politics is that the intensifying strategic rivalry between the two states condenses into a structural world conflict. This could trigger de-globalization and the emergence of two orders, one under the predominant influence of the United States and the other under China's influence.}}

For additional overviews see Westad (2019)<ref>Odd Arne Westad, "The sources of Chinese conduct: Are Washington and Beijing fighting a new Cold War?" ''Foreign Affairs'' 98 (2019): 86+ [http://viet-studies.net/kinhte/FA_SourcesChineseConduct.pdf online]</ref> and Mark (2012).<ref>Chi-kwan Mark, ''China and the World since 1945: an International History'' (Taylor and Francis, 2012) [https://www.amazon.com/China-World-since-1945-International/dp/0415606519/ excerpt]</ref>

=====George H. W. Bush administration (1989–1993)=====
{{Main|Foreign policy of the George H. W. Bush administration}}
Americans who had been optimistic about the emergence of democratic characteristics in response to the rapid economic growth in China were stunned and disappointed by the brutal crackdown of the pro-democratic [[1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre|Tiananmen Square protests in 1989]].<ref>Eric A. Hyer, "Values Versus Interests: The US Response to the Tiananmen Square Massacre" (Georgetown Institute for the Study of Diplomacy, 1996. [https://www.academia.edu/download/55264904/Values_Versus_Interests_The_U.S._Response_to_the_Tiananmen_Square_Massacre.pdf online]{{dead link|date=July 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> The U.S. and other governments enacted a number of measures against China's violation of [[Human rights in China|human rights]]. The US suspended high-level official exchanges with the PRC and weapons exports from the US to the PRC. The US also imposed a number of economic sanctions. The crisis disrupted trade relationships as investors' interest in mainland China dropped dramatically. Tourist traffic fell off sharply.<ref>Wesley S. Roehl, "Travel agent attitudes toward China after Tiananmen Square." ''Journal of Travel Research'' 29.2 (1990): 16–22.</ref> Washington denounced the repression and suspended certain trade and investment programs. Bush himself knew China well as a former chief diplomat stationed there and played a cautious hand so that condemnation would not preclude good ties. For example, he vetoed a sanctions bill passed by Congress.<ref>David Skidmore and William Gates. "After Tiananmen: The struggle over US policy toward China in the Bush administration." ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' (1997): 514–39. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/27551766 in JSTOR]</ref><ref>Robert Suettinger, ''Beyond Tiananmen: The Politics of US-China Relations, 1989–2000'' (Brookings Institution Press, 2004), pp 88–144.</ref>

=====Joe Biden administration (2021–)=====
{{See also|Foreign policy of the Joe Biden administration#China, Taiwan, and the South China Sea}}

Relations with the [[Presidency of Joe Biden|new Biden administration]] in 2021 included heightened tensions over trade, technology and human rights, particularly regarding Hong Kong, and the treatment of minorities in China. In addition, international tensions regarding control of the South China Sea remained high. However, the Biden and Xi administrations agreed to collaborate on long-term projects regarding climate change, nuclear proliferation, and the global COVID-19 pandemic.<ref>Sha Hua and Andrew Jeang, "U.S. and China Discuss Enhancing Beijing's Climate Commitments
Climate envoy John Kerry says meetings with counterparts in Shanghai were productive" [https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-and-china-discuss-enhancing-beijings-climate-commitments-11618726162?page=1 ''Wall Street Journal'', April, 19, 2021]</ref>

====Winter Olympics 2022 in China====
{{Main|2022 Winter Olympics|Concerns and controversies at the 2022 Winter Olympics}}
China celebrated a "joyless triumph" in games with few spectators because of severe anti-covid restrictions. There were no disasters but Russian athletes were again embarrassed by a doping scandal, the media coverage was eclipsed by rising war fears in Europe regarding Russia and Ukraine, and growing anxiety about the future of the sporting movement, according to Steven Lee Myers and Kevin Draper. Of the 91 countries participating, Norway and Germany dominated the medal count, followed by the Russian athletes who played regardless of Russia itself being banned for [[Doping in Russia|a major doping scandal]]. [[Orville Schell]], an American expert on China, stated: "Such an august occasion, designed to promote openness, good sportsmanship and transnational solidarity, ended up being a heavily policed, brittle, Potemkin-like simulacrum of the Olympic ideal."<ref>Steven Lee Myers and Kevin Draper, "With Olympics Closing Ceremony, China Celebrates a Joyless Triumph" [https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/20/world/asia/olympics-closing-ceremony-beijing.html?action=click&pgtype=LegacyCollection&state=default&module=styln-beijing-winter-olympics&variant=show&region=MAIN_CONTENT_1&block=storyline_top_links_recirc ''New York Times'' Feb. 20, 2022]</ref>

===Globalization===
{{Main|Globalization|History of globalization}}

Since World War II, barriers to international trade have been considerably lowered through international agreements&nbsp;– GATT. The [[Washington Consensus]] of 1989 set out best practices according to major world agencies. Particular initiatives carried out as a result of GATT and the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), for which GATT is the foundation, have included:
* Promotion of free trade:
** Elimination of tariffs; creation of [[free trade zone]]s with small or no tariffs
** Reduced transportation costs, especially resulting from development of [[containerization]] for ocean shipping.
** Reduction or elimination of [[capital controls]]
** Reduction, elimination, or harmonization of subsidies for local businesses
** Creation of subsidies for global corporations
** Harmonization of intellectual property laws across the majority of states, with more restrictions
** Supranational recognition of intellectual property restrictions (e.g., patents granted by China would be recognized in the United States)
Cultural globalization, driven by communication technology and the worldwide marketing of Western cultural industries, was understood at first as a process of homogenization, as the global domination of American culture at the expense of traditional diversity. However, a contrasting trend soon became evident in the emergence of movements protesting against globalization and giving new momentum to the defense of local uniqueness, individuality, and identity.<ref>Jurgen Osterhammel and Niels P. Petersson. ''Globalization: a short history''. (2005) p. 8</ref>

The [[Uruguay Round]] (1986 to 1994)<ref>WTO.org,(2009)</ref> led to a treaty to create the WTO to mediate trade disputes and set up a uniform platform of trading. Other bilateral and multilateral trade agreements, including sections of Europe's [[Maastricht Treaty]] and the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) have also been signed in pursuit of the goal of reducing tariffs and barriers to trade.

World exports rose to 16.2% in 2001 from 8.5% in 1970, of total gross world product.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.globalpolicy.org/socecon/trade/tables/exports2.htm | title = World Exports as Percentage of Gross World Product | publisher = [[Global Policy Forum]] | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080712023541/http://www.globalpolicy.org/socecon/trade/tables/exports2.htm | archive-date = July 12, 2008 | access-date = November 11, 2009}}</ref>

In the 1990s, the growth of low-cost communication networks allowed work done using a computer to be moved to low wage locations for many job types. This included accounting, software development, and engineering design.

[[File:GDP Real Growth in 2009.svg|thumb|upright=1.7|World map showing [[List of countries by real GDP growth rate|real GDP growth rates]] for 2009; countries in brown were in a recession.]]

===Great economic recession 2007–2009===
{{main|Great Recession|Effects of the Great Recession|Timeline of the Great Recession|Great Recession in Europe|Great Recession in the United States|2007–2008 financial crisis}}

In 2007–2009, most of the industrialized world was affected by the [[Great Recession]].<ref>{{Cite news | url = https://www.forbes.com/2009/01/14/global-recession-2009-oped-cx_nr_0115roubini.html | title = A Global Breakdown Of The Recession In 2009 | first = Nouriel | last = Roubini | date = January 15, 2009 | work=Forbes| author-link = Nouriel Roubini }}</ref>
After 2001 there was a global rise in prices in commodities and housing, marking an end to the [[late-twentieth century commodities recession|commodities recession of 1980–2000]]. The US mortgage-backed securities, which had risks that were hard to assess, were marketed around the world and a broad-based credit boom fed a global speculative bubble in real estate and equities. The financial situation was also affected by a sharp increase in oil and food prices. The collapse of the American [[housing bubble]] caused the values of securities tied to mortgages to plummet thereafter, damaging financial institutions.<ref>"Jarvis, Jonathan. [http://crisisofcredit.com/ Crisis of Credit]". crisisofcredit.com</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=This American Life |url=http://www.pri.org/business/giant-pool-of-money.html |title=NPR-The Giant Pool of Money-April 2009 |publisher=Pri.org |access-date=May 1, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100415153017/http://www.pri.org/business/giant-pool-of-money.html |archive-date=April 15, 2010 }}</ref> The [[Great Recession]], a severe economic [[recession]] which began in the United States in 2007,<ref>In December 2008, the [[National Bureau of Economic Research]] (NBER) declared that the United States had been in recession since December 2007. See {{Cite news|url=https://money.cnn.com/2008/12/01/news/economy/recession/index.htm?postversion=2008120112|title=It's official: Recession since December '07 |last=Isidore |first=Chris |date=December 1, 2008 |publisher=CNN|access-date=April 10, 2009}} for more information.</ref> was sparked by the [[2007–2008 financial crisis]].<ref>{{Cite news|url =http://online.barrons.com/article/SB50001424052970203983104575367471896032724.html?mod=googlenews_barrons |title=It's Dippy to Fret About a Double-Dip Recession |last=Hulbert|first=Mark|date=July 15, 2010}}</ref> The [[2007–2008 financial crisis]] was linked to earlier lending practices by financial institutions and the trend of [[securitization]] of American real estate mortgages.<ref>{{Cite speech|first=Fredric S. |last=Mishkin|url=http://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/speech/mishkin20080515a.htm|title=How Should We Respond to Asset Price Bubbles?|date=May 15, 2008|access-date=April 18, 2009}}</ref> The emergence of Sub-prime loan losses exposed other risky loans and over-inflated asset prices.<ref>Mark Gertler, and Simon Gilchrist, "What happened: Financial factors in the great recession." ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'' 32.3 (2018): 3–30. [https://scholar.google.com/scholar?output=instlink&q=info:9I1bXGbxqbcJ:scholar.google.com/&hl=en&as_sdt=0,27&as_ylo=2017&scillfp=12543900128079003130&oi=lle online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305145415/https://scholar.google.com/scholar?output=instlink&q=info%3A9I1bXGbxqbcJ%3Ascholar.google.com%2F&hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C27&as_ylo=2017&scillfp=12543900128079003130&oi=lle |date=March 5, 2022 }}</ref>

The downturn quickly spread to most of the industrialized world and caused a pronounced deceleration of economic activity. The global recession occurred in an economic environment characterized by various imbalances. It caused a sharp drop in [[international trade]], rising unemployment and slumping commodity prices. The recession renewed interest in [[2008–2009 Keynesian resurgence|Keynesian economic ideas]] on how to combat recessionary conditions. However, various industrial countries continued to undertake [[austerity]] policies to cut [[Government budget deficit|deficits]], reduced [[Government spending|spending]], as opposed to following Keynesian theories which called for increased spending to bolster demand.

[[File:Countries by Real GDP Growth Rate (2014).svg|300px|thumb|Countries by real GDP growth rate in 2014. (Countries in red were in recession.)]]
From late 2009 [[European sovereign-debt crisis]], fears of a sovereign debt crisis developed among investors concerning rising government debt levels across the globe together with a wave of downgrading of government debt of certain European states. Concerns intensified early 2010 and thereafter making it difficult or impossible for sovereigns to re-finance their debts. On May 9, 2010, Europe's Finance Ministers approved a rescue package worth €750&nbsp;billion aimed at ensuring financial stability across Europe. The [[European Financial Stability Facility]] (EFSF) was a special purpose vehicle financed by members of the eurozone to combat the European sovereign debt crisis. In October 2011 eurozone leaders agreed on another package of measures designed to prevent the collapse of member economies. The three most affected countries, Greece, Ireland and Portugal, collectively account for six percent of eurozone's gross domestic product (GDP). In 2012, [[Eurozone]] finance ministers reached an agreement on a second €130-billion Greek bailout. In 2013, the European Union [[2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis|agreed to a €10&nbsp;billion economic bailout]] for Cyprus.

===Asia===

====1997 Asian financial crisis====
{{Main|1997 Asian financial crisis}}
[[File:Asian Financial Crisis EN vector.svg|thumb|350px|The countries most affected by the 1997 Asian financial crisis]]

Until 1999, Asia attracted almost half of the total [[Capital (economics)|capital]] inflow into [[Developing country|developing countries]]. The economies of Southeast Asia in particular maintained high interest rates attractive to foreign investors looking for a high [[rate of return]]. As a result, the region's economies received a large inflow of money and experienced a dramatic run-up in asset prices. At the same time, the regional economies of Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore and South Korea experienced high growth rates, of 8–12% GDP, in the late 1980s and early 1990s. This achievement was widely acclaimed by financial institutions including the IMF and [[World Bank]] and was known as part of the "[[Four Asian Tigers|Asian economic miracle]]".<ref>Saleheen Khan, et al. "The Asian crisis: an economic analysis of the causes." ''Journal of Developing Areas'' (2005): 169–190. [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.620.4910&rep=rep1&type=pdf online].</ref><ref>Bhumika Muchhala, ed. ''[http://www.cepr.net/documents/publications/tenyearsafter_2007_11.pdf Ten Years After: Revisiting the Asian Financial Crisis]''. (Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars: Asia Program, 2007).</ref>

The Asian financial crisis was a sudden [[financial crisis]] that gripped much of East Asia and Southeast Asia beginning in July 1997 and raised fears of a worldwide economic meltdown due to [[financial contagion]]. However, the recovery in 1998–1999 was rapid.<ref>Morris Goldstein, ''The Asian financial crisis: Causes, cures, and systemic implications'' (Institute For International Economics, 1998). [https://web.archive.org/web/20170329040256/http://faculty.arts.ubc.ca/tiberg/MPA_Asia_Apr_2010_readings/Goldstein%201999%20(Ch.%201).pdf online]</ref><ref>Shalendra Sharma, ''The Asian Financial Crisis: New International Financial Architecture: Crisis, Reform and Recovery'' (Manchester University Press, 2003)</ref>

The crisis started in [[Economy of Thailand|Thailand]] on July 2, 1997, with the financial collapse of the [[Thai baht]] after the Thai government was forced to [[floating currency|float]] the baht due to a severe shortage of foreign currency to peg to the U.S. dollar. [[Capital flight]] ensued almost immediately, beginning an international chain reaction. At the time, Thailand had acquired a burden of [[foreign debt]]. As the crisis spread, most of Southeast Asia and Japan saw slumping currencies, devalued stock markets and other asset prices, and a precipitous rise in [[private debt]].

[[Economy of Indonesia|Indonesia]], [[Economy of South Korea|South Korea]], and Thailand were the countries most affected by the crisis. [[Economy of Hong Kong|Hong Kong]], [[Economy of Laos|Laos]], [[Economy of Malaysia|Malaysia]] and the [[Economy of Philippines|Philippines]] were also hurt badly. However, [[Economy of China|China]] as well as [[Economy of Singapore|Singapore]], [[Economy of Taiwan|Taiwan]], and [[Economy of Vietnam|Vietnam]] were less affected, although all suffered from a loss of demand and confidence throughout the region. [[Economy of Japan|Japan]] was also affected, though less significantly.

Foreign [[debt-to-GDP ratio]]s rose in most of Asia during the worst of the crisis. In South Korea, the ratios rose from 13% to 21% and then as high as 40%, while the other northern [[Newly industrialized country|newly industrialized countries]] fared much better. Only in Thailand and South Korea did debt service-to-exports ratios rise.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://www.adb.org/publications/key-indicators-developing-asian-and-pacific-countries-2003|title = Key Indicators of Developing Asian and Pacific Countries 2003|date = August 2003|journal= Asian Development Bank|volume = 34|access-date = November 16, 2015}}</ref>

The [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) stepped in to initiate a $40&nbsp;billion program to stabilize the currencies of South Korea, Thailand, and Indonesia, economies particularly hard hit by the crisis. The efforts to stem a global economic crisis did little to stabilize the domestic situation in Indonesia, however. After 30 years in power, Indonesian President [[Suharto]] was [[Fall of Suharto|forced to step down]] on May 21, 1998, in the wake of widespread rioting that followed sharp price increases caused by a drastic devaluation of the [[Indonesian rupiah|rupiah]]. The effects of the crisis lingered through 1998. In 1998, growth in the Philippines dropped to virtually zero. Only Singapore and Taiwan proved relatively insulated from the shock, but both suffered serious hits in passing, the former due to its size and geographical location between Malaysia and Indonesia. By 1999, however, the [[Economy of Asia|economies of Asia]] were recovering rapidly. After the crisis, the affected economies worked toward better financial supervision.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kawai |first1=Masahiro |last2=Morgan |first2=Peter J. |date=2012 |title=Central Banking for Financial Stability in Asia |work=ADBI Working Paper 377 |place=Tokyo |publisher=Asian Development Bank Institute |url=http://www.adbi.org/files/2012.08.28.wp377.central.banking.financial.stability.asia.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018154416/http://www.adbi.org/files/2012.08.28.wp377.central.banking.financial.stability.asia.pdf |archive-date=October 18, 2012}}</ref>

===Europe===
Following the end of the Cold War, the [[European Economic Community]] pushed for closer integration, co-operation in foreign and home affairs, and started to increase its membership into the neutral and former communist countries. In 1993, the [[Maastricht Treaty]] established the European Union, succeeding the EEC and furthering political co-operation. The neutral countries of Austria, Finland and Sweden acceded to the EU, and those that didn't join were tied into the EU's economic market via the [[European Economic Area]]. These countries also entered the [[Schengen Agreement]] which lifted border controls between member states.The Maastricht Treaty created a single currency for most EU members. The ''[[euro]]'' was created in 1999 and replaced all previous currencies in participating states in 2002. The most notable exception to the currency union, or ''[[eurozone]]'', was the United Kingdom, which also did not sign the Schengen Agreement.<ref name="Europa History 90-99">{{cite web |title=A Europe without frontiers |publisher=[[Europa (web portal)]] |url=http://europa.eu/abc/history/1990-1999/index_en.htm |access-date=June 25, 2007}}</ref>

The EU did not participate in the [[Yugoslav Wars]] and was divided on supporting the United States in the 2003–2011 [[Iraq War]]. NATO has been part of the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|war in Afghanistan]], but at a much lower level of involvement than the United States.

In 2004, the EU [[2004 enlargement of the European Union|gained 10 new members]]. (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, which had been part of the Soviet Union; Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia, five former-communist countries; Malta, and the divided island of Cyprus.) These were followed by [[2007 enlargement of the European Union|Bulgaria and Romania in 2007]]. Russia's regime had interpreted these expansions as violations against NATO's promise to not expand "one inch to the east" in 1990.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/nato-s-eastward-expansion-did-the-west-break-its-promise-to-moscow-a-663315-2.html|title=NATO's Eastward Expansion: Calming Russian Fears |author=Spiegel Online, Hamburg|date=November 26, 2009|newspaper=Der Spiegel}}</ref> Russia engaged in a number of bilateral disputes about gas supplies with Belarus and Ukraine which endangered gas supplies to Europe. Russia also engaged in a [[Russo-Georgian War|minor war with Georgia]] in 2008.<ref>Philipp Ther, ''Europe since 1989: A History'' (Princeton UP, 2016)</ref>

Supported by the United States and some European countries, Kosovo's government [[2008 Kosovo declaration of independence|unilaterally declared independence]] from Serbia on February 17, 2008.

Public opinion in the EU turned against enlargement, partially due to what was seen as over-eager expansion including Turkey gaining candidate status. The [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe|European Constitution]] was rejected [[Referendums related to the European Union|in France and the Netherlands]], and then (as the [[Treaty of Lisbon]]) in Ireland, although a second vote passed in Ireland in 2009.

The [[2007–2008 financial crisis]] and the [[Great Recession]] affected Europe, and government responded with [[Anti-austerity movement|austerity measures]]. Limited financial capability of the smaller EU nations (most notably [[Economy of Greece#2010–2018 government debt crisis|Greece]]) to handle their debts led to social unrest, government liquidation, and financial insolvency. In May 2010, the German parliament agreed to loan 22.4&nbsp;billion euros to Greece over three years, with the stipulation that Greece follow strict austerity measures. See [[European sovereign-debt crisis]].

Beginning in 2014, Ukraine has been in a [[2014 Ukrainian revolution|state of revolution]] and unrest with two breakaway regions ([[Donetsk]] and [[Lugansk]]) attempting to join Russia as full [[Federal subjects of Russia|federal subjects]]. (''See [[War in Donbas (2014–2022)|War in Donbass]].'') On March 16, a [[2014 Crimean status referendum|referendum]] was held in [[Crimea]] leading to the ''de facto'' secession of Crimea and its largely internationally unrecognized [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|annexation]] to the Russian Federation as the [[Republic of Crimea (Russia)|Republic of Crimea]].<ref>Katherine Graney, ''Russia, the Former Soviet Republics, and Europe Since 1989: Transformation and Tragedy'' (Oxford UP, 2019)</ref>

In June 2016, in a [[2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum|referendum in the United Kingdom]] on the [[European Union–United Kingdom relations|country's membership in the European Union]], 52% of voters voted to leave the EU, leading to the complex [[Brexit]] separation process and negotiations, which led to [[Aftermath of the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum|political and economic changes]] for both the UK and the remaining European Union countries. The UK left the EU on January 31, 2020.<ref>Edoardo Bressanelli, et al. "Managing disintegration: How the European Parliament responded and adapted to Brexit." ''Politics and governance'' 9.1 (2021): 16–26 [https://www.cogitatiopress.com/politicsandgovernance/article/viewFile/3684/3684 online].</ref>

The European Union went through several crises. The [[European debt crisis]] caused severe economic problems to several [[eurozone]] member states, most severely [[Greek government-debt crisis|Greece]].<ref>Markus K. Brunnermeier, and Ricardo Reis, "A Crash Course on the Euro Crisis" [https://www.nber.org/papers/w26229 NBER paper online, 2019]</ref> The [[European migrant crisis|2015 migration crisis]] led to several million people entering the EU illegally in a short period of time. Many died at sea.<ref>Gabriella Lazaridis, ''International Migration into Europe: From Subjects to Abjects'' (Palgrave Macmillan. 2015).</ref> Growing cynicism and distrust of the established parties led to a sharp rise in the 2014 European Parliament Elections in the vote shares of several [[eurosceptic]] parties, including the [[Lega Nord|League]] in Italy, [[Alternative for Germany]], and the [[Finns Party]] in Finland.<ref>Vincenzo Emanuele, et al. "Gaining votes in Europe against Europe? How National contexts shaped the results of Eurosceptic Parties in the 2014 European Parliament Elections." ''Journal of Contemporary European Research'' 12.3 (2016) [https://www.jcer.net/index.php/jcer/article/download/732/586/ online]</ref>

====Transatlantic connections====
{{Further|NATO|Special Relationship}}

Strong ties linked the U.S. and Canada with Britain and Europe.<ref>For current updates see [https://www.brookings.edu/research/trans-atlantic-scorecard-april-2021/ "Trans-Atlantic Scorecard" (Brookings Institution, 2021)]</ref> The military alliance of [[NATO]] expanded after the end of the Cold War and engaged in wars in the Balkans{{citation needed|date=August 2021}} and Afghanistan.<ref>Philipp Münch, "Creating common sense: getting NATO to Afghanistan." ''Journal of Transatlantic Studies'' (2021): 1–29 [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1057/s42738-021-00067-0 online].</ref> The U.S. and Britain continue to maintain a [[Special Relationship]].<ref>John Dumbrell, "The US–UK Special Relationship: Taking the 21st-Century Temperature." '' British Journal of Politics & International Relations'' (2009) 11#1 pp: 64–78. [http://dro.dur.ac.uk/5601/1/5601.pdf online]</ref>

====Eastern Europe====
{{multiple image
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| image1    = EU25-2004 European Union map enlargement.svg
| caption1  = {{legend|#003399|existing members}} {{legend|#ffcc00|new members in 2004}}<br />Cyprus<br />Czech Republic<br />Estonia<br />Hungary<br />Latvia<br />Lithuania<br />Malta<br />Poland<br />Slovakia<br />Slovenia
| width2    = 125
| image2    = EU27-2007 European Union map enlargement.svg
| caption2  = {{legend|#003399|existing members}} {{legend|#ffcc00|new members in 2007}}<br />Bulgaria<br />Romania
| width3    = 125
| image3    = EU28-2013 European Union map enlargement.svg
| caption3  = {{legend|#003399|existing members}} {{legend|#ffcc00|new members in 2013}}<br />Croatia
}}

With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, the political landscape of the [[Eastern Bloc]], and indeed the world, changed. In the [[German reunification]], the Federal Republic of Germany peacefully absorbed the German Democratic Republic in 1990. In 1991, [[COMECON]], the [[Warsaw Pact]], and the Soviet Union were dissolved. Many European nations that had been part of the Soviet Union regained their independence (Belarus, Moldova, Ukraine, as well as the [[Baltic States]] of Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia). [[Czechoslovakia]] [[Dissolution of Czechoslovakia|peacefully separated]] into the Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1993. Many countries of this region joined the European Union, namely Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Croatia, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia. The term "EU11 countries" refer to the [[Central Europe|Central]], Eastern and [[Baltic states|Baltic European]] member states that accessed in 2004 and after: in 2004 the Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Poland, Slovenia, and the Slovak Republic; in 2007 Bulgaria, Romania; and in 2013 Croatia.<ref>Alan J. Day et al. ''A Political and Economic Dictionary of Eastern Europe'' (2002) 627–635.pp</ref>

Generally, they soon encountered the following economic problems: high inflation, high unemployment, low economic growth, and high government debt. By 2000 these economies were stabilized, and between 2004 and 2013 all of them joined the European Union.<ref>Alan J. Day et al. ''A Political and Economic Dictionary of Eastern Europe'' (2002) pp 158, 199, 449, 474, 579.</ref>

====Russo-Ukrainian War====
{{Main|Russo-Ukrainian War|Prelude to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine}}

The Russo-Ukrainian War is an ongoing and protracted conflict that started in February 2014, primarily involving Russia and pro-Russian forces on one hand, and Ukraine on the other. The war has centered on the status of Crimea and parts of the Donbas, which are internationally recognized as part of Ukraine. Tensions between Russia and Ukraine erupted especially from 2021 to 2022, when it became apparent that Russia was considering launching a military invasion of Ukraine. In February 2022, the crisis deepened, and diplomatic talks to subdue Russia failed; this culminated in Russia moving forces into the separatist controlled regions on February 22, 2022. After repeated warnings the European Union, Britain, the United States, and Germany denounced the movement as an invasion and imposed sanctions.<ref>"Biden Joins Europe in Punishing Russia With Sanctions" [https://www.nytimes.com/live/2022/02/22/world/russia-ukraine-biden-putin  ''New York Times'' Feb. 22, 2022]</ref>

===Terrorism ===
{{Main|History of terrorism}}

In the 1980s and 1990s, [[Islam]]ic militancy in pursuit of religious and political goals increased,{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} many militants drawing inspiration from Iran's 1979 Islamic Revolution.<ref name="meforum.org">{{cite journal|url=http://www.meforum.org/1826/contrasting-secular-and-religious-terrorism|title=Contrasting Secular and Religious Terrorism|first=Jonathan|last=Fine|date=January 2008|journal=Middle East Forum|access-date=November 27, 2015}}</ref> In the 1990s, well-known violent acts that targeted civilians were the [[1993 World Trade Center bombing|World Trade Center bombing]] by Islamic terrorists on February 26, 1993, the [[Tokyo subway sarin attack]] by [[Aum Shinrikyo]] on March 20, 1995, and the [[Oklahoma City bombing|bombing of Oklahoma City's Murrah Federal Building]] in April 1995. Religion was a main factor in most cases. [[Special-interest terrorism]] was use by organized [[pressure groups]] of violent action, as in [[anti-abortion violence]] and [[environmental terrorism]].

====Middle East====
[[Hezbollah]] ("Party of God") is an [[Islamism|Islamist]] movement and political party founded in Lebanon in 1985 to achieve an Islamic revolution in Lebanon and the withdrawal of Israeli forces from Lebanon. It carried out missile attacks and suicide bombings against Israeli targets.<ref name="HG20Ak02">{{cite web |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/HG20Ak02.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060720154531/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/HG20Ak02.html |url-status=unfit |archive-date=July 20, 2006 |title=Hezbollah's transformation |first=Dahr |last=Jamail |publisher=Asia Times |date=July 20, 2006 |access-date=October 23, 2007}}</ref>

[[Egyptian Islamic Jihad]] seeks an [[Islamic republic|Islamic state]] in Egypt. The group was formed in 1980 as an umbrella organization for militant student groups which were formed after the leadership of the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] renounced violence. In 1981, it assassinated Egyptian president [[Anwar Sadat]]. On November 17, 1997, at the [[Luxor massacre]], it machine-gunned 58 Japanese and European vacationers and four Egyptians.<ref>Wright, Lawrence, ''Looming Tower'', Knopf, 2006, p. 123</ref>

The first Palestinian [[suicide attack]] took place in 1989. In the 1990s, [[Hamas]] became well known for suicide bombings.<ref>Levitt, Matthew ''Hamas: Politics, Charity, and Terrorism in the Service of Jihad''. (2007).</ref> Palestinian militant organizations have been responsible for [[Palestinian rocket attacks|rocket attacks]] on Israel, [[Improvised explosive device|IED]] attacks, shootings, and stabbings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/hamas.htm|title=HAMAS (Islamic Resistance Movement)|first=John|last=Pike|work=globalsecurity.org|access-date=November 27, 2015}}</ref>

====Asia====
[[Aleph (Japanese cult)|Aum Shinrikyo]], now known as Aleph, is a Japanese [[New religious movement|religious group]] and terrorist organization.<ref name=olson/> On June 28, 1994, Aum Shinrikyo members released sarin gas from several sites in [[Matsumoto, Nagano|Matsumoto]], Japan, killing eight and injuring 200 in what became known as the [[Matsumoto sarin attack|Matsumoto incident]].<ref name=olson>[https://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol5no4/olson.htm CDC website], [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]], ''Aum Shinrikyo: Once and Future Threat?'', Kyle B. Olson, Research Planning, Inc., [[Arlington, Virginia]]</ref> On March 20, 1995, Aum Shinrikyo members released sarin gas in a coordinated attack on five trains in the Tokyo subway system, killing 12 commuters and damaging the health of about 5,000 others<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4365417.stm | work=BBC News | title=Sarin attack remembered in Tokyo | date=March 20, 2005 | access-date=May 4, 2010}}</ref> in what became known as the [[Tokyo subway sarin attack|subway sarin incident]]. In May 1995, Asahara and other senior leaders were arrested and the group's membership rapidly decreased.

====Russia====
{{Main articles|First Chechen War|Second Chechen War|Insurgency in the North Caucasus}}
[[File:Beslan school no 1 victim photos.jpg|thumb|right|Hostage crisis victim photos, on the walls of the former School Number One]]

[[Chechnya|Chechen]] separatists, led by [[Shamil Basayev]], carried out several attacks on Russian targets between 1994 and 2006.<ref>Hoffman, p.154</ref> In the June 1995 [[Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis]], Basayev-led separatists took over 1,000 civilians hostage in a hospital in the southern Russian city of [[Budyonnovsk]]. When Russian special forces attempted to free the hostages, 105 civilians and 25 Russian troops were killed.<ref>Smith, Sebastian. ''Allah's Mountains: The Battle for Chechnya''. Tauris, 2005. p.200</ref>

====September 11 attacks====
{{main|September 11 attacks}}
[[File:North face south tower after plane strike 9-11.jpg|thumb|left|The northeast face of the [[Two World Trade Center|South Tower]] of the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]], after being struck by plane in the south face.]]

By far, the biggest episode was the September 11, 2001, attack on New York and Washington by al Qaeda. Elsewhere, the Middle East was the main locale for terrorism.

On the morning of September 11, 2001, four airliners were hijacked by 19 members of the terrorist organization [[al-Qaeda]]. One struck the [[One World Trade Center|North Tower]] of the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]] in New York City; with a second striking the South Tower, resulting in the collapse of both 110-story skyscrapers, and the destruction of the World Trade Center. The third hijacked plane was crashed into [[the Pentagon]] (the headquarters of the [[United States Department of Defense]]) outside Washington. The 9/11 attack was the single deadliest international terrorist incident and the most devastating foreign attack on American soil since the [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor]] on December 7, 1941. The U.S. declared war on terrorism, beginning with an attack on al-Qaeda and its Taliban supporters in Afghanistan, that lasted into 2021.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf | title =9/11 Commission Report | author =9/11 Commission | publisher =9-11commission.gov | date =July 22, 2004| author-link =9/11 Commission }}</ref>

Other major episodes include the [[Moscow theater hostage crisis|2002 Moscow theater hostage crisis]], the [[2003 Istanbul bombings]], the [[2004 Madrid train bombings]], the [[Beslan school siege|2004 Beslan school hostage crisis]], the [[July 2005 London bombings|2005 London bombings]], the [[2005 Delhi bombings|2005 New Delhi bombings]], the [[2007 Yazidi communities bombings]], the [[2008 Mumbai attacks|2008 Mumbai Hotel Siege]], the [[Makombo massacre|2009 Makombo massacre]], the [[2011 Norway attacks]], the [[May 2013 Iraq attacks|2013 Iraq attacks]], the [[Camp Speicher massacre|2014 Camp Speicher massacre]], the [[2014 Gamboru Ngala attack]], the [[November 2015 Paris attacks|2015 Paris attacks]], the [[2016 Karrada bombing]], the [[2016 Mosul massacre]], the [[Hamam al-Alil massacre|2016 Hamam al-Alil massacre]], the [[14 October 2017 Mogadishu bombings|2017 Mogadishu bombings]] and the [[2017 Sinai attack]].<ref>Randall D. Law, ed. ''The Routledge History of Terrorism'' (2015)</ref>

In the 21st century, most victims of terrorist attacks have been killed in Iraq, Afghanistan,<ref>START (Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism), «[https://www.start.umd.edu/pubs/START_MassCasualtyExplosivesAttacksIraqAfghanistan_BackgroundReport_June2017.pdf Mass Casualty Explosives Attacks in Iraq and Afghanistan]», University of Maryland, June 2017 : "terrorist violence in Iraq and Afghanistan has accounted for a substantial proportion of terrorism worldwide in the 21st century. The total number of deaths caused by terrorist attacks in these two countries comprised nearly half (46%) of all fatalities worldwide between 2004 and 2016."</ref> Nigeria, Syria, Pakistan, India, Somalia or Yemen.

===Peace and warfare===
[[Michael Mandelbaum]] explains that the 25 years after 1989 were peaceful for three basic reasons. The collapse of the USSR enabled the "liberal hegemony" of the United States, working closely with NATO and other allies. Secondly democracy grew rapidly and as the "[[democratic peace theory]]" states, democracies rarely fight each other. Finally, globalization caused prosperity and interdependence.<ref>Michael Mandelbaum, ''The Rise and Fall of Peace on Earth'' (2019).</ref>

What warfare did exist from 1990 to 2002 involved civil wars. They include the [[Somali Civil War]] (ongoing) and the [[Second Congo War]] in Africa, the [[Yugoslav Wars]] in Europe, the [[Tajikistani Civil War]] in Asia, and the [[Cenepa War]] in South America. From 2003 onward they include [[War in Darfur]]; [[Iraq War]]; [[Kivu conflict]] in Congo; [[Libyan Civil War (2011)]]; [[Syrian civil war]] since 2011; [[War in Iraq (2013–2017)]]; the [[Russo-Ukrainian War]] since 2014; [[International military intervention against the Islamic State|International military intervention against ISIL]] in Iraq since 2014; and [[Yemeni Civil War (2014–present)]].<ref>Ariel I. Ahram, ''War and Conflict in the Middle East and North Africa'' (John Wiley & Sons, 2020).</ref><ref>Andreas Krieg and Jean-Marc Rickli, ''Surrogate Warfare: The Transformation of War in the Twenty-First Century'' (2019).</ref>

====Afghanistan====
{{Main|War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)}}

The [[Northern Alliance]] and [[NATO]]-led [[International Security Assistance Force|ISAF]] [[United States invasion of Afghanistan|invaded]] Afghanistan on [[Operation Enduring Freedom|October 7, 2001]], and overthrew the Al-Qaeda-supportive [[Taliban]] government. Troops remained to install a democratic government, fight a slowly escalating insurgency, and to hunt for Al-Qaeda leader [[Osama bin Laden]] who was [[Death of Osama bin Laden|killed]] by [[SEAL Team Six|American troops]] 10 years later, on May 2, 2011. On December 31, 2016, NATO forces officially ended combat operations in Afghanistan. On August 15, 2021, the Taliban took control of Afghanistan again. All NATO forces left on August 31, 2021.<ref>Carter Malkasian, ''The American War in Afghanistan: A History'' (2021).</ref>

====Russian invasion of Ukraine====
{{Main|Russian invasion of Ukraine|Russo-Ukrainian War|International sanctions during the Russian invasion of Ukraine}}

On February 21, 2022, Russia officially recognized the two self-proclaimed separatist states in the Donbas, and openly sent troops into the territories. On February 24, 2022, Russia invaded Ukraine in a major escalation of the [[Russo-Ukrainian War]] that began in 2014. The invasion caused Europe's largest refugee crisis since World War II, with more than 6.4&nbsp;million Ukrainians fleeing the country and a third of the population displaced. The invasion also caused global food shortages, and oil shortages in Europe.<ref>David R. Marples, ed. ''The War in Ukraine's Donbas: Origins, Contexts, and the Future'' (2022) [https://www.amazon.com/War-Ukraines-Donbas-Origins-Contexts/dp/9633865972/ excerpt]</ref>

Led by NATO, the European Community, and the United States, much of the international community has heavily condemned Russia, accusing it of breaking international law and grossly violating Ukrainian sovereignty. Many countries implemented cultural, business, and financial sanctions against Russia, Russian individuals, and Russian companies. Many corporations and organizations ended their relations with Russia, especially regarding high technology and the arts. NATO countries sharply cut their imports of Russian oil and gas, preparing for a complete cutoff. After Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] [[Russia under Vladimir Putin|silenced opposition]], many dissenters fled Russia. [[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]], Ukraine's president, became an international icon for leading the resistance.<ref>Steven Derix, ''Zelensky: Ukraine's President and His Country'' (2022) [https://www.amazon.com/Zelensky-Ukraines-President-His-Country-ebook/dp/B0B24B6HP3/ excerpt]</ref>

====Second Cold War====
The elevated geopolitical tensions in the 21st century between some [[Democracy|democracies]] including United States and some [[Authoritarianism|authoritarian regimes]] including Russia and China are also described as [[Second Cold War]].<ref name="m479">{{cite journal | last=Buzan | first=Barry | title=A new cold war?: The case for a general concept | journal=International Politics | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=61 | issue=2 | date=March 6, 2024 | issn=1384-5748 | doi=10.1057/s41311-024-00559-8 | pages=239–257}}</ref><ref name="t464">{{cite journal | last=Schindler | first=Seth | last2=Alami | first2=Ilias | last3=DiCarlo | first3=Jessica | last4=Jepson | first4=Nicholas | last5=Rolf | first5=Steve | last6=Bayırbağ | first6=Mustafa Kemal | last7=Cyuzuzo | first7=Louis | last8=DeBoom | first8=Meredith | last9=Farahani | first9=Alireza F. | last10=Liu | first10=Imogen T. | last11=McNicol | first11=Hannah | last12=Miao | first12=Julie T. | last13=Nock | first13=Philip | last14=Teri | first14=Gilead | last15=Vila Seoane | first15=Maximiliano Facundo | last16=Ward | first16=Kevin | last17=Zajontz | first17=Tim | last18=Zhao | first18=Yawei | title=The Second Cold War: US-China Competition for Centrality in Infrastructure, Digital, Production, and Finance Networks | journal=Geopolitics | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=29 | issue=4 | date=September 7, 2023 | issn=1465-0045 | doi=10.1080/14650045.2023.2253432 | doi-access=free | pages=1083–1120}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Contemporary history]]
* [[Post–Cold War era]]
* [[Cyberwarfare]] 
* [[Foreign relations of Russia]]
* [[History of globalization]]
* [[History of terrorism]]
* [[List of modern conflicts in the Middle East]]
* [[List of modern conflicts in North Africa]]
* [[List of wars: 1990–2002]]
* [[List of wars: 2003–present]]
* [[History of Russia (1991–present)]]
* [[Trade war]]
* [[War on terror]]
* [[World War III]]

==Notes==
<references/>

===Works cited===
* {{cite journal |last1=Friedlingstein |first1=Pierre |last2=Jones |first2=Matthew W. |last3=O'Sullivan |first3=Michael |last4=Andrew |first4=Robbie M. |display-authors=4 |last5=Hauck |first5=Judith |last6=Peters |first6=Glen P. |last7=Peters |first7=Wouter |last8=Pongratz |first8=Julia |last9=Sitch |first9=Stephen |last10=Quéré |first10=Corinne Le |last11=Bakker |first11=Dorothee C. E. |date=2019 |title=Global Carbon Budget 2019 |journal=Earth System Science Data |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=1783–1838 |doi=10.5194/essd-11-1783-2019 |bibcode=2019ESSD...11.1783F |issn=1866-3508 |doi-access=free|hdl=10871/39943 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite magazine |last=Sherman |first=Wendy R. |author-link=Wendy R. Sherman |title=How We Got the Iran Deal: And Why We'll Miss It |magazine=[[Foreign Affairs]] |volume=97 |number=5 |date=September–October 2018 |pages=186–197}}

==Further reading==
* Adebajo, Adekeye, ed. ''Curse of Berlin: Africa After the Cold War'' (Oxford UP, 2014).
* Allitt, Patrick N. ''America after the Cold War: The First 30 Years'' (2020).
* Andersson, Jenny. ''The future of the world: Futurology, futurists, and the struggle for the post cold war imagination'' (Oxford UP, 2018).
* Ahram, Ariel I. ''War and Conflict in the Middle East and North Africa'' (John Wiley & Sons, 2020).
* Asare, Prince, and Richard Barfi. "The Impact of Covid-19 Pandemic on the Global Economy: Emphasis on Poverty Alleviation and Economic Growth." ''Economics'' 8.1 (2021): 32–43 [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Prince_Vitenu-Sackey/publication/348162269_The_Impact_of_Covid-19_Pandemic_on_the_Global_Economy_Emphasis_on_Poverty_Alleviation_and_Economic_Growth/links/5ff1611c45851553a0151517/The-Impact-of-Covid-19-Pandemic-on-the-Global-Economy-Emphasis-on-Poverty-Alleviation-and-Economic-Growth.pdf online].
* Aziz, Nusrate, and [[M Niaz Asadullah|M. Niaz Asadullah]]. "Military spending, armed conflict and economic growth in developing countries in the post–Cold War era." ''Journal of Economic Studies'' 44.1 (2017): 47–68.
* Brands, Hal. ''Making the unipolar moment: U.S. foreign policy and the rise of the post-Cold War order'' (2016).
* Brown, Archie. ''The rise and fall of communism'' (Random House, 2009).
* Brügger, Niels, ed, ''Web25: Histories from the first 25 years of the world wide web'' (Peter Lang, 2017).
* Cameron, Fraser. ''US foreign policy after the cold war: global hegemon or reluctant sheriff?'' (Psychology Press, 2005).
* Cassani, Andrea, and Luca Tomini. ''Autocratization in post-cold war political regimes'' (Springer, 2018).
* Clapton, William ed. ''Risk and Hierarchy in International Society: Liberal Interventionism in the Post-Cold War Era'' (Palgrave Macmillan UK. 2014)
* Dai, Jinhua, and Lisa Rofel, eds. ''After the Post–Cold War: The Future of Chinese History'' (Duke UP, 2018).
* Duong, Thanh. ''Hegemonic globalisation: U.S. centrality and global strategy in the emerging world order'' (Routledge, 2017).
* ''[[The Economist]]''. ''The Pocket World in 2021'' (2020) [https://www.amazon.com/Pocket-World-in-Figures-2021/dp/1788164970/ excerpt], annual
* Engerman, David C. et al. eds. ''The Cambridge History of America and the World, Volume IV, 1945 to the Present'' (Cambridge University Press, 2021).  ISBN 978110841927 [https://issforum.org/essays/PDF/E438.pdf online review]
* Gertler, Mark, and Simon Gilchrist. "What happened: Financial factors in the great recession." ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'' 32.3 (2018): 3–30. [https://scholar.google.com/scholar?output=instlink&q=info:9I1bXGbxqbcJ:scholar.google.com/&hl=en&as_sdt=0,27&as_ylo=2017&scillfp=12543900128079003130&oi=lle online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305145415/https://scholar.google.com/scholar?output=instlink&q=info%3A9I1bXGbxqbcJ%3Ascholar.google.com%2F&hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C27&as_ylo=2017&scillfp=12543900128079003130&oi=lle |date=March 5, 2022 }}
* Harrison, Ewam. ''The Post-Cold War International System: Strategies, Institutions and Reflexivity'' (2004).
* Henriksen, Thomas H. ''Cycles in US Foreign Policy Since the Cold War'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2017) [https://www.amazon.com/Cycles-Foreign-Policy-American-Century/dp/3319748521/ excerpt].
* Howe, Joshua P. ''Behind the curve: science and the politics of global warming'' (U of Washington Press, 2014).
* Jackson, Robert J. and Philip Towle. ''Temptations of Power: The United States in Global Politics after 9/11'' (2007)
* Kotkin, Stephen. ''Armageddon Averted: The Soviet Collapse, 1970–2000'' (2nd ed. 2008) [https://www.amazon.com/Armageddon-Averted-Soviet-Collapse-1970-2000-dp-0195368649/dp/0195368649/ excerpt]
* Lamy, Steven L., et al. ''Introduction to global politics'' (4th ed. Oxford UP, 2017)
* [[Michael Mandelbaum|Mandelbaum, Michael]] ''The Rise and Fall of Peace on Earth'' (Oxford UP, 2019) why so much peace 1989–2015. [https://www.amazon.com/Rise-Fall-Peace-Earth/dp/0197533167/ excerpt]
* Maull, Hanns W., ed. ''The rise and decline of the post-Cold War international order'' (Oxford UP, 2018).
* O'Neill, William. ''A Bubble in Time: America During the Interwar Years, 1989–2001'' (2009) [https://www.amazon.com/Bubble-Time-America-Interwar-1989-2001-ebook/dp/B009R6GYKI/ Excerpt], popular history
* Osterhammel, Jurgen, and Niels P. Petersson. ''Globalization: a short history''. (2005).
* Pekkanen, Saadia M., John Ravenhill, and Rosemary Foot, eds. ''Oxford handbook of the international relations of Asia'' (Oxford UP, 2014), comprehensive coverage.
* Priestland, David. ''The Red Flag: Communism and the making of the modern world'' (Penguin UK, 2009). [https://archive.org/details/redflaghistoryof0000prie online]
* Ravenhill, John, ed. ''Global political economy'' (5th ed. Oxford UP, 2017) [https://www.amazon.com/Global-Political-Economy-John-Ravenhill/dp/0198737467/ excerpt]
* Reid-Henry, Simon. ''[[Empire of Democracy]]: The Remaking of the West Since the Cold War'' (2019) [https://www.amazon.com/Empire-Democracy-Remaking-West-Since/dp/1451684967/ excerpt]
* Rosefielde, Steven. ''Putin's Russia: Economy, Defence and Foreign Policy'' (2020) [https://www.amazon.com/Putins-Russia-Economy-Defense-Foreign/dp/9811212678/ excerpt]
* {{cite book |last=Rosenberg |first=Jerry M. |title=The Concise Encyclopedia of The Great Recession 2007–2012 |year=2012 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |edition=2nd |isbn= 9780810883406|url=https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000rose |url-access=registration }}
* Rubin, Robert, and Jacob Weisberg. ''In an uncertain world: tough choices from Wall Street to Washington'' (2015).
* Rudolph, Peter. "The Sino-American World Conflict" (German Institute for International and Security Affairs. SWP Research Paper #3, February 2020). doi: 10.18449/2020RP03 [https://www.swp-berlin.org/10.18449/2020RP03/ online]
* Sarotte, Mary Elise, ed. ''1989: The Struggle to Create Post-Cold War Europe'' (Princeton UP, 2014).
* Schenk, Catherine R. ''International economic relations since 1945'' (2nd ed. 2021).
* Service, Robert. ''Comrades! A History of World Communism'' (Harvard UP, 2007).
* Smith, Rhona K.M. et al. ''International Human Rights'' (4th ed. 2018)
* Smith, Rhona KM. ''Texts and materials on international human rights'' (4th ed. Routledge, 2020).
* [[Angela Stent|Stent, Angela E.]] ''The Limits of Partnership: U.S. Russian Relations in the Twenty-First Century'' (Princeton UP, 2014); [https://books.google.com/books?id=jfaKAQAAQBAJ excerpt and text search]
* Stiglitz, Joseph E. ''The roaring nineties: A new history of the world's most prosperous decade'' (Norton, 2004), economic history
* Strong, Jason. ''The 2010s: Looking Back At A Dramatic Decade'' (2019) [https://www.amazon.com/2010s-Looking-Back-Dramatic-decade/dp/1999222725/ online]
* Taylor-Gooby, Peter, Benjamin Leruth, and Heejung Chung, eds. ''After austerity: Welfare state transformation in Europe after the great recession'' (Oxford UP, 2017).
* {{cite book |last=Tooze |first=Adam |author-link=Adam Tooze |title=Crashed: How a Decade of Financial Crises Changed the World |location=New York |publisher=[[Viking]] |year=2018 |isbn=9780670024933}}
* Tooze, Adam. ''Shutdown: How Covid Shook the World's Economy'' (2021).
* United Nations. ''World Economic Situation and Prospects 2020'' (2020) [https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/document_gem/global-economic-monitoring-unit/world-economic-situation-and-prospects-wesp-report/world-economic-situation-and-prospects-wesp-full-report/ online annual reports]
* United Nations. ''World Economic and Social Survey 2010 – Retooling Global Development'' (2010) [https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/publication/world-economic-and-social-survey-5/ online]

==External links==
* [https://www.proquest.com/docview/2112553901/A3E5E6ED67AE470FPQ/4 ''Annual Register'' (London), covers international diplomatic, political and economic affairs for all nations; online through libraries]

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